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Effect of defoliation on maize growth and yield
Possible species for the production of biodiesel on marginal land
B A McKenzie1, B M Smallfield2, V Fasi1 and R J Martin1
1Bioprotection Research Centre, P O Box 84, Lincoln University, Lincoln 7647, New Zealand
2The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited, Private Bag 4704, Christchurch
Abstract
A series of field experiments was conducted in 2009-10 and 2010-11 in the North and South Islands of New Zealand to examine the potential of brown mustard (Brassica juncea); camelina or false flax (Camelina sativa); meadowfoam (Limnanthes alba) and field penny-cress (Thlaspi arvense) with oilseed rape (Brassica napus) as the current NZ biodiesel crop. Crops were grown at three sites in both years; Ashley Dene (dryland sheep farm, Lincoln), Oxford (wet, low fertility land in the foothills of the Southern Alps) and Taupo (central North Island light pumice soil). There were both autumn and spring sowings at all sites in 2009- 10, but in 2010-11, Taupo and Oxford had spring sown trials only. In 2009-10 all species established well after sowing with the exception of field penny-cress. At Taupo and Oxford oilseed rape yielded up to 2.3 and 3.8 t seed ha-1 respectively, but at Ashley Dene it yielded less than 1 t seed ha-1. Brown mustard and camelina performed nearly as well at some sites, producing up to 2.9 t seed ha-1 at Taupo, yet at Ashley Dene, camelina produced just 0.9 t seed ha-1. Meadowfoam had the highest seed yield of nearly 1.6 t ha-1 at Ashley Dene, and, at Taupo and Oxford, it yielded up to 1.0 and 0.6 t seed ha-1 respectively. Seed oil contents within species were similar across all sites. Oilseed rape had the highest oil content, averaging 40% followed by brown mustard (35%) and camelina (33%). Field penny-cress and meadowfoam were lower, averaging 24% and 15% respectively. Oil yields followed a very similar trend to seed yield. Maximum oil yields of 1.5 and 1.0 t ha-1 were attained by oilseed rape at Oxford and Taupo respectively. Most other sites, sowings and species combinations produced less than 600 kg oil ha-1. In 2010-11 the crops were much less productive than in the previous year. This was mostly due to weather events - significant late rainfall at Taupo causing disease problems and destruction of bird netting by high winds in Canterbury allowing birds to eat the seeds. As a consequence, oil yields were less than half of the previous year in those sites. The maximum oil yield was 967 kg ha-1 from oilseed rape sown in September at Oxford. This study has shown the adaptability of oilseed rape to marginal environments and the potential of camelina as an alternative biodiesel crop. Additional keywords: Brassica napus, Brassica juncea, Camelina sativa, Limnanthes alba, Thlaspi arvense,yield, oil content, sowing date, sites Introduction
ability to grow on marginal agricultural land
Brassica napus L. (oilseed rape [OSR]);
Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. (brown mustard
[BM]); Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz
biofuel. This legislation has since been
(camelina or false flax [CS]); Limnanthes alba Hartw. Ex Benth. (meadowfoam
interest in biofuels worldwide as the price
[MF]); Thlaspi arvense L. (pennycress or
of petrol and diesel continues to increase
field penny-cress [PC]). These were grown
(Timilsina and Shrestha, 2011). Ethanol is
at three sites representative of large tracts of
now widely used as a substitute for petrol.
marginal agricultural land in New Zealand.
used in New Zealand is diesel (Ministry of
Materials and Methods
alternatives for biodiesel have not been
widely researched (Painter, 2009). There
on marginal soils at three sites (Table 1).
has also been much concern, particularly in
These were: Ashley Dene, a dryland sheep
the USA and Europe, over the utilisation of
high quality cropping soils to grow biofuels
low fertility site on Ruapuna silt loam in the
biofuels (Timilsina and Shrestha, 2011).
foothills of the Southern Alps; and near
Taupo in the North Island on a light pumice
examine the potential of a range of oilseed
species to produce biodiesel on marginal
―Flash‖ 2009-10, ―Bravour‖ 2010-11 and
land, i.e. land with limitations to growing
spring ―Ability‖; BM ‖Centennial‖ PC
high yields of food crops. Five species were
Accession ―Beecher Field‖; MF ―Floral‖;
selected on the basis of yield, oil content,
Table 1: Soil Test Results 2009 with 2010 in brackets. All values except pH are MAF Quick
Balmoral 5.8(5.6) 39(21) 10(9) 28(23) 12(8) 13(9) 20(26)
after the soil moisture deficit was greater
five species sown in single blocks, either in
than 50% of field capacity. This gave 20
the autumn or spring, and with nitrogen (N)
plots per block, four replicates of the five
treatments of either 50 or 150 kg N ha-1
species. Plot (or main plot) size varied with
applied at sowing. At Oxford, the N inputs
3.5 m x 10 m plots at Taupo and 4.2 m x 10
were subplots of the species, and, at Ashley
m plots at Oxford and Ashley Dene. Sowing
Dene, the high N plots also received 119
rates at all sites were: OSR 4 kg ha-1, BM 4
mm of irrigation across the growing season
kg ha-1, PC 2.5 kg ha-1 (10.5 kg ha-1 Ashley
Species for production of biodiesel
the soil. Insect control was with diazinon
granules at 800 g ha-1 (a.i. diazinon 200 g
kg-1) and Attack® at 1 l ha-1 (a.i. 25 g l-1
methyl). After emergence plots were hand
(2 hives in 2009 and 4 hives in 2010) and
Taupo (1 hive each year) at flowering to
ensure pollination. At Oxford there were
abundant bees in the adjacent beech forest
upper pods started to shatter. At Ashley
destroyed by birds soon after emergence,
netting prior to normal harvest time. At
dates. N treatments of 0, 50 or 150 kg N ha-1
Taupo, resource issues resulted in harvest
just prior to pod shattering. In 2009-10 seed
yields were taken from 0.6-1.8 m2 at Ashley
2010-11 harvest area was 0.3 m2 at Ashley
were abandoned due to premature death. N
was applied to all spring sown plots on 23
from each plot by hand using secateurs and
reps 1 and 2 on 5 November and reps 3 and
dried in a forced air oven at 65°C to a
establishment and weeds. BM was not sown
at Oxford because of space constraints. At
harvest index. The remainder was dried in
Taupo N was applied on 8 November. At all
sites the experimental design was a split
plot with sowing dates as main plots and N
levels as sub-plots. Ashley Dene plots were
Taupo, whereas at Ashley Dene the entire
respectively. Again plots were sown using
an Oyjord cone seeder at sowing depths of
cylinder hole screen press operating at a
throughput of 20-35 g minute-1 with a choke
size of 4 mm and operating temperature of
80°C. Sample size extracted was 250 to 300
g. Seed moisture content was determined at
glyphosate). Treflan® at 3 l ha-1 (a.i.
trifluralin 480 g l-1) was incorporated into
spring were equal to LTM‘s, but during
All results except oil content and oil yield
separation was through the use of Fishers
than LTM‘s, respectively. Rainfall over the
protected LSD. Oil content and oil yield
could not be analysed as to get enough seed
(total 519 mm) and nearly identical to the
for the press replicates were bulked. This
air temperatures were similar to LTM‘s
inadequate seed yield to obtain enough seed
to press for oil. Meteorological data was
collected from Hobo® microstations (Onset
results, however, were firstly the 209 mm
Massachusetts) located at each site. Before
rainfall at Taupo in January, 2011.This is
nearly three times the long term January
mean of 72 mm, and caused severe disease
problems in harvested seed. Secondly, gale
Meteorological Service stations. These were
down bird netting at Ashley Dene, resulting
in significant removal of seed by birds.
Germination and Establishment
before sowing in both seasons and showed
that while all germinations were greater
germination percentages of less than 80%
the long term mean of 534 mm. For Oxford
rainfall from August to March was 719 mm
and for Taupo from May to March rainfall
Survival 2009-10
subsequent overrunning by weeds, led to its
These values are very similar to long term
abandonment at all sites except the spring
means (LTM) as calculated from collected
sowing at Ashley Dene. Red clover overran
temperatures were nearly identical to long
2010-11
(June to August) was 34% higher than the
went prematurely to seed and died in the
however, Ashley Dene received 152mm less rainfall than the long term mean. At
Species for production of biodiesel
Germination percentages of five species sown in a biodiesel experiment in two seasons.
Total dry matter
appears to have no effect on TDM in 2010-
2009-10 Seed yields
highly variable (Table 3). In almost all
2009-10
cases the lowest TDM production was from
over all sites, sowing dates and input levels
(Table 3). At Ashley Dene MF produced up
species OSR generally produced the highest
less than 900 kg ha-1. At Oxford and Taupo,
OSR achieved yields of up to 3,800 kg ha-1
produced at Oxford and over 7,000 kg ha-1
produced up to 1,400 kg ha-1 and 2,800 kg
ha-1 respectively at the two sites. Overall
3,778 kg ha-1 (Oxford) followed by CS at
Averaged over all sites and species the high
2,915 kg ha-1 (Taupo) and BM at 2,078 kg
input treatments of 150 kg ha-1 produced
4,868 kg ha-1 TDM, while the low treatment
response to N was inconsistent over sites
2010-11
were very similar to the first: spring Ashley
2010-11
Seed yields in the second growing season
were not affected by any of the treatment
4,700 kg ha-1 TDM (Table 4). OSR was the
6,800 kg ha-1 TDM at all sites except the
ha-1 TDM) CS produced a similar yield to
respectively. Seed yield response to N was
considerably less at the other sites. Apart
except at Oxford. At this site seed yields of both OSR and CS increased as the level of
N applied increased. At the other two sites,
Harvest index 2010-11
in the second growing season were similar
harvested crop and may not agree with that
to the previous year. However, oil content
calculated from the main sample, which had
2009-10 Oil Yields 2009-10
that considerable seed was lost prior to
showed very similar trends to seed yields
2010-11
produced the highest seed yield (1,551 kg
Harvest indices were again variable as in
ha-1) at Ashley Dene, but, because of its low
the first growing season, ranging from 1%
expelled oil content, it only produced 322
kg of oil ha-1. OSR produced up to 326 kg
oil ha-1 at this site from a very poor crop
Thousand seed weight 2009-10 and 2010-11
produced maximum oil yields ha-1 from the
spring sown high input (1,518 kg ha-1) and
expected, but much less variable between
sites and seasons. However at Ashley Dene
yields over 900 kg ha-1 at Taupo with BM
and Taupo thousand seed weight of OSR in
the spring sowings was much less than in
sown high input plots. PC and MF produced
the autumn sowings. In the second season,
thousand seed weights were lower than in
2010-11 Oil content
were very poor, with no crops producing in
2009-10
excess of 1,000 kg oil ha-1 (Table 4). At
In the first growing season, expelled oil
Species for production of biodiesel
Total DM yield, seed yield, harvest index, thousand seed weight, oil content and oil yield at final harvest of five species at three sites in 2009-10 sown in autumn-winter or spring with low or high inputs.
NS = non significant *, **, *** = significant at 0.05, 0.01, 0.001 respectively. 1OSR and BM were resown on 25 June. 2also received 119 mm of irrigation. 3Unbracketed LSD is within species (Bracketed LSD is for all other comparisons).
Table 4: Total dry matter, seed yield, harvest index, thousand seed weight, oil content and oil
yield at final harvest of three species at three sites in 2010-11 with varying sowing dates and a range of nitrogen application rates.
NS = non significant *, **, *** = significant at 0.5, 0.01, 0.001 respectively. 1Unbracketed LSD is within species Bracketed LSD is for all other comparisons.
Discussion
84% of this (Malca and Freire, 2011). OSR
These results indicate that there are some
irrigation trials (Daly and Martin, 1988).
producing over 1,000 kg oil ha-1 in marginal
environments. In particular, OSR, CS and
husbandry, over 4 t ha-1 of seed have been
BM produced oil yields in excess of 1,000
kg ha-1 on low fertility soils in Oxford and
Biodiesel NZ, pers. comm., 2011). In our
trials OSR proved to be a highly adaptive
approximately 68% of the world‘s biodiesel
Taupo, especially under high inputs (Table
3). At Ashley Dene, which received about
Species for production of biodiesel
half the rainfall of the other two sites, yields
producing 800 and spring 300 kg seed ha-1.
Dene and at all sites during seed fill. This
latter difficulty necessitated the netting of
Ashley Dene site, but not at the other sites
where weed competition over grew this low
growing crop. Seed weights were high but
by the authors eating seed over 100 m into
oil extraction and yields were very low, so
PC failed to establish at most sites and is
known as a shy establisher (Schill, 2008).
and 4) These two crops have similar seed
This will make it unsuitable for a biodiesel
yields and harvest indices to OSR, but seed
crop on marginal lands as weeds are likely
size and seed oil content were lower for
to be a major threat to crop establishment
Yields were highest under high inputs at
Dene under low inputs. These oilseed crops
are unsuitable for drought prone paddocks
and will need to be grown in fertile soils
However, in the present trials BM seed pods
without water stress in order to produce
shattered easily and the crop also suffered
consistently high yielding crops with high
from white rust (Albugo candida (Pers.)
Kuntze) during the vegetative growth phase
these two seasons compare very favourably
with yields reported from overseas. Pavlista
fill. So BM did not appear to have enough
et al. (2011) reported that in Nebraska,
advantages over OSR to continue with it at
USA production ranged from 402 to 2,261,
all sites in 2010-11. While swathing may
398 to 1,277 and 556 to 1,456 kg ha-1 for
have helped reduce shattering, this was not
In the first year, yields were affected by a
bird damage in these trials, which would be
a great advantage for a commercial crop in
populations were highly variable (data not
New Zealand. Also it matures up to a month
earlier than OSR. It therefore may have a
small seeds, e.g. thousand seed weight of
place as a short season crop to include in a
Canada as a short season low input biofuel
respectively in 2009 (Table 3). This makes
crop (Pilgeram et al., 2007) and yields
overseas have been as high as 2.5 t ha-1
under highly fertile conditions and up to 1.7
sowing depth of OSR generally had a negative effect on seed emergence and they
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the Foundation of
approximately 10 mm, this was difficult to
funding this work and the technicians at the
(Taupo) or were wet and infertile (Oxford).
(Lincoln), for their technical assistance. We
events affected two of the trial sites. Very
also thank Gianni Prencipe and Ngai Tahu
high rainfall caused disease problems at
Farming Ltd (Taupo) for managing the field
destroyed all of the bird netting at Ashley
trials, and Margaret Campbell, Biodiesel
Dene. Both events led to severe seed loss
and hence reduced yields. This is a good
indication of the increased risks arable
References
Daly, M.J. and Martin, R.J. 1988. Oilseed
rape: the effects of rate, timing and form
Conclusions
Lismore soil. Proceedings Agronomy Society of New Zealand 18: 97-102.
Malca, J. and Freire, F. 2011. Life-cycle
studies of biodiesel in Europe: A review
addressing the variability of results and
Sustainable Energy Reviews 15: 338-351.
crops will require fertile soils or high
Painter, D. 2009. Are biofuels the future or
a folly?: a review. New Zealand Journal
Species for production of biodiesel
Pavlista, A.D., Isbell, T.A., Baltensperger,
Schill, S.R. 2008. Making pennycress pay
camelina. Industrial Crops and Products
Pilgeram, A.L., Sands, D.C., Boss, D., Dale,
B. and Johnson, D.L. 2007. Camelina sativa, a Montana omega-3 and fuel crop.
pp.129-131 In: Issues in new crops and
new uses. Eds Janick, J. and Whipkey, A.
Species for production of biodiesel
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