J O U R N A L O F P E S T I C I D E R E F O R M / S U M M E R 1 9 9 8 • V O L . 1 8 , N O . 2
● I N S E C T I C I D E F A C T S H E E T PERMETHRIN The insecticide permethrin (in the synthetic pyrethroid family) is widely used on cotton, wheat, corn, alfalfa, and other crops. In addition, over 100 million applications are made annually in and around U.S. homes. Permethrin, like all synthetic pyrethroids, is a neurotoxin. Symptoms include tremors, incoordination, elevated body temperature, increased aggressive behavior, and disruption of learning. Laboratory tests suggest that permethrin is more acutely toxic to children than to adults. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has classified permethrin as a carcinogen because it causes lung tumors in female mice and liver tumors in mice of both sexes. Permethrin inhibits the activity of the immune system in laboratory tests, and also binds to the receptors for a male sex hormone. It causes chromosome aberrations in human and hamster cells. Permethrin is toxic to honey bees and other beneficial insects, fish, aquatic insects, crayfish, and shrimp. For many species, concentrations of less than one part per billion are lethal. Permethrin causes deformities and other developmental problems in tadpoles, and reduces the number of oxygen-carrying cells in the blood of birds. Permethrin has been found in streams and rivers throughout the United States. It is also routinely found on produce, particularly spinach, tomatoes, celery, lettuce, and peaches. A wide variety of insects have developed resistance to permethrin. High levels of resistance have been documented in cockroaches, head lice, and tobacco budworm. BY CAROLINE COX Permethrin Mode of Action
throids, kills insects by strongly exciting
including head lice control. It was first
sending a single impulse in response to a
counting for about 60 percent (by weight)
of the permethrin used.1 In the U.S., al-
in agriculture is used on corn, wheat, and
alfalfa.2 Over 100 million applications of
side of the nerve cells. Permethrin’s mode
permethrin are made each year in U.S.
of action is similar to that of the orga-
Permethrin is a synthetic pyrethroid . Acute Lethal Dose
secticides, it has four isomers, molecules
population of test animals) is variable. In
ent three-dimensional structures. (See Fig-
3-Phenoxybenzyl-3-(2,2-dichlorovinyl)-2,2-
Caroline Cox is JPR’s editor.
ity occurs because the proportions of iso-
NORTHWEST COALITION FOR ALTERNATIVES TO PESTICIDES/NCAP
P. O. B O X 1 3 9 3, E U G E N E, O R E G O N 9 7 4 4 0 / ( 5 4 1 ) 3 4 4 - 5 0 4 4
J O U R N A L O F P E S T I C I D E R E F O R M / S U M M E R 1 9 9 8 • V O L . 1 8 , N O . 2
system is exquisitely sensitive … at expo-
Effect of Permethrin on the
sure levels that cause no overt toxicity.”20
Immune System Neurotoxicity Effects on Reproduction
male reproductive systems. It binds to re-
sects, it causes repetitive nerve impulses.
ceptors for androgen, a male sex hormone,
It also inhibits a variety of nervous sys-
researchers to “advise protection from any
form of contact or ingestion of the pyre-
throids.”22 Permethrin also binds to a dif-
ferent receptor, called the peripheral ben-
zodiazepine receptor, that stimulates pro-
mitters8; and acetylcholinesterase, the en-
(% cytotoxicity - means with standard errors)
acetylcholinesterase inhibitors.) In addi-
ducing excitability and convulsions.10 Fi-
nally, permethrin inhibits respiration (the
Mutagenicity
Blaylock, R.L. et al. 1995. Suppression of
cellular immune responses in BALB/c micefollowing oral exposure to permethrin. Bull.
Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 54:768-774.
other neurotoxic drugs.11 It is therefore
not surprising that permethrin causes a Permethrin inhibits natural killer cells, one com-
wide variety of neurotoxic symptoms.
blurred vision.”17,18 They also cause “red-
ness, swelling, and possibly blistering” of
“causes eye injury”19 and “may cause al-
to three days.12 Other behavioral effects
Effects on the Immune
permethrin-containing insecticide) during
by living things to defend themselves from
Carcinogenicity
permethrin increased aggressive behavior,
disease) “appears to be a sensitive target
learned feeding behavior in rats at doses
system cells called T-lymphocytes to rec-
ognize and respond to foreign proteins.
lung tumors in female mice, and increased
Eye and Skin Irritation
inhibited T-lymphocytes over 40 percent.
the frequency of liver tumors in male and
irritating to both eyes and skin. For ex-
nization reports that permethrin increased
ample, the agricultural insecticide Pounce
tem cell, natural killer cells, by about 40
3.2 EC “causes moderate eye irritation.”16
percent.20 (See Figure 2.) In tests using
mouse cell cultures, permethrin had simi-
lar effects on the immune system, inhibi-
Fogger both cause “tearing, swelling, and
NORTHWEST COALITION FOR ALTERNATIVES TO PESTICIDES/NCAP
P. O. B O X 1 3 9 3, E U G E N E, O R E G O N 9 7 4 4 0 / ( 5 4 1 ) 3 4 4 - 5 0 4 4
J O U R N A L O F P E S T I C I D E R E F O R M / S U M M E R 1 9 9 8 • V O L . 1 8 , N O . 2
synergistically induce growth of the soil
Incidence of Lung Tumors in Permethrin-treated Mice
permethrin and the insecticide amitraz are
Individual Susceptibility
to permethrin, as has been illustrated by
mals, it appears children may be moresensitive to permethrin than adults.
Permethrin is almost 5 times more acutely
toxic to 8-day-old rats than it is to adultrats.38 (See Figure 4.)
• Since sulfates are involved in one of
with defects in sulfate-related enzymesmay be unable to easily break down
World Health Organization. 1990. Permethrin. Environmental Health Criteria 94. Geneva,
Switzerland: WHO, United Nations Environment Prog., and International Labor Org. Pp.76-78.
Permethrin increased the incidence of lung tumors in tests conducted by FMC (●) and
have reduced activity are at higher risk of
crease was not statistically significant.31
at all doses tested in a rat feeding study.24
of the carcinogenicity of permethrin-con-
which could explain permethrin’s carci-
“ It appears children
nogenicity. First, permethrin reduces the
may be more
of their individual effects. A possible cause
sensitive to
breakdown of the amino acid tryptophan.
of the health problems reported by 30,000
permethrin than adults. Permethrin
Second, permethrin inhibits what is called
is almost 5 times
“gap junctional intercellular communica-
combination of permethrin, the anti-nerve
more acutely toxic to 8-day-old rats
role in the growth of cells, and some can-
than it is to adult
toms, including decreased activity, diar-
rats.”
rhea, shortness of breath, tremors, inabil-
Other Chronic Effects Effects on Nontarget Animals Beneficial Arthropods: As a broad
tory studies that exposed rats, mice, and
spectrum insecticide, it is not surprising
also caused tremors and inability to walk,
were noted at the “lowest effect level” in
arthropods, those that are useful in agri-
Other pesticides interact synergistically
laboratory tests include enlarged adrenal
with permethrin with in other species.
glands at all doses tested in a rabbit feed-
bees; the median lethal dose is 0.008 mi-
NORTHWEST COALITION FOR ALTERNATIVES TO PESTICIDES/NCAP
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J O U R N A L O F P E S T I C I D E R E F O R M / S U M M E R 1 9 9 8 • V O L . 1 8 , N O . 2
crograms per bee.41 Sublethal exposurescause increased abnormal behavior (trem-
Effect of Age on the Toxicity of Permethrin
Biological Control tested the acute tox-icity of permethrin to 13 species of ben-
permethrin caused 99 percent mortalityof 12 of the species, and over 80 percent
mortality of the other. Effects were per-sistent, lasting over 30 days.44 Sublethaldoses also impact beneficial arthropods:
permethrin inhibited the emergence of aparasitoid wasp from eggs of the rice
moth Corcyracephalonica45 and disruptedthe foraging pattern of another parasi-toid wasp as it searched for its aphid
prey.46 (Parasitoids are insects that lay
(milligrams of permethrin per kilogram of body weight
their eggs in, on, or near their prey. The
Cantalamessa, F. 1993. Acute toxicity of two pyrethroids, permethrin and cypermethrin, in
neonatal and adult rats. Arch. Toxicol. 67:510-513.
populations of agricultural pests at lowlevels.)
Permethrin is more toxic (the LD is lower) to young rats than to adult rats. Aquatic Insects: Because it is a broad Fish: Permethrin is highly toxic to fish.
This toxicity is due, in part, to the sensi-
Permethrin applications to forest streams
tivity of their nervous system.54 Fish also
caused “a major increase in the density
of drifting invertebrates” described as
Forest Service in field studies. They found
“catastrophic.” (Drifting animals are those
that are sufficiently poisoned by the in-
mals) is less than 1 part per million (ppm)
these fish use as food. In some cases, di-
stream.) Most applications were also fol-
for almost all fish species tested, and for
ets were altered for a year following treat-
some fish is less than 1 part per billion
fauna,” insects that live in the stream bed.
and migration to untreated areas followed;
called emulsifiable concentrates are about
months.47 Mayflies and damselflies are the
twice as toxic to fish as permethrin alone.
most sensitive species.49 Permethrin also
Small fish are less tolerant of permethrin
“not an acceptable treatment for large-
scale use in forest areas containing fish-
also have a particular developmental stage
Amphibians: Permethrin disrupts the Birds: While permethrin’s acute tox-
icity to birds is low,50 it causes other ad-
verse effects. Three-week dietary exposure
tail abnormality. (See Figure 5.) The in-
that concentrations in fish are higher than
lowest concentration of permethrin tested,
the fish live. Bioconcentration factors (the
also responded to prodding in a jerky and
NORTHWEST COALITION FOR ALTERNATIVES TO PESTICIDES/NCAP
P. O. B O X 1 3 9 3, E U G E N E, O R E G O N 9 7 4 4 0 / ( 5 4 1 ) 3 4 4 - 5 0 4 4
J O U R N A L O F P E S T I C I D E R E F O R M / S U M M E R 1 9 9 8 • V O L . 1 8 , N O . 2 Effect of Permethrin on Tadpole Development
food (44 percent of the samples tested)and was also found in plums (11 percent
Contamination of Water
Survey has found permethrin in streamsand rivers in the Mississippi River Ba-sin,72 the Central Columbia Plateau
Florida Coastal Plain,74 the San Joaquin-Tulare Basin (California),75 and the
states).76 Permethrin has also been found
Permethrin Concentration (parts per million)
Berrill, M. et al. 1993. Lethal and sublethal impacts of pyrethroid insecticides on amphibianembryos and tadpoles. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 12:525-539.
plication away from the target area, hasbeen measured for two types ofpermethrin applications: aerial and back
Permethrin causes a tail deformity, “bent back” in tadpoles.
790 feet) under conditions “highly con-
effects.”66 Another animal that is very sen-
ducive” to drift.78 These researchers sug-
sitive to permethrin is crayfish; LC s for
decreased the amounts of two specific pro-
1.2 ppb. Researchers concluded that “even
teins is associated with learning. Activity
Persistence
cluding acetylcholinesterase, decreased.63
life (the amount of time required for half
Other Aquatic Animals: Permethrin Residues on Food
is very highly toxic to lobster; the LC is
agricultural soil and 43 days in Illinois.80
half of the larvae) of less than 1 ppm.65
pesticide.68 Similar results were found in
persists longer; soil concentrations did not
decline during the first year.81 Permethrin
with a bioconcentration factor of 1900.66
also persists longer in tree needles, foli-
age, and bark, up to 363 days.82 The abil-
permethrin exposure; LC s of several spe-
ity of permethrin to persist in the envi-
caused “severe mortalities” of two kinds
study of an application of permethrin ear
samples tested).69 Permethrin was also fre-
at concentrations so low that they cannot
their pasture, on a fence pole, and in grass.
it in 12 percent of the samples tested.
ppb). This means that “any detection of
NORTHWEST COALITION FOR ALTERNATIVES TO PESTICIDES/NCAP
P. O. B O X 1 3 9 3, E U G E N E, O R E G O N 9 7 4 4 0 / ( 5 4 1 ) 3 4 4 - 5 0 4 4
J O U R N A L O F P E S T I C I D E R E F O R M / S U M M E R 1 9 9 8 • V O L . 1 8 , N O . 2 Resistance References
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