Salofalk.cms.net.cn

Guidelines for the management of inflammatory
bowel disease in adults
Updated information and services can be found at: References
This article cites 144 articles, 32 of which can be accessed free at: 1 online articles that cite this article can be accessed at: Rapid responses
2 rapid responses have been posted to this article, which you can access for free at: Email alerting
Receive free email alerts when new articles cite this article - sign up in the box at the Topic collections
Articles on similar topics can be found in the following collections To order reprints of this article go to: Guidelines for the management of inflammatory bowel disease in adultsM J Carter, A J Lobo, S P L Travis, on behalf of the IBD Section of the British Society ofGastroenterology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gut 2004;53(Suppl V):v1–v16. doi: 10.1136/gut.2004.043372 Ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn’s disease (CD) (collectively 2.1 Impact of IBD on patients and society2–4 termed inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)) are complex Patients find symptoms of UC or CD embarrassing and disorders reflected by wide variation in clinical practice.
humiliating. IBD can result in loss of education and difficulty These guidelines, commissioned by the Clinical Services’ in gaining employment or insurance. It can also cause Committee of the British Society of Gastroenterology (BSG) psychological problems and growth failure or retarded sexual for clinicians and allied professionals caring for patients with development in young people. Medical treatments such as IBD in the United Kingdom, provide an evidence based corticosteroids or immunosuppressive drugs cause secondary document describing good clinical practice for investigation health problems, and surgery may result in complications and treatment. The guidelines are intended to bring such as impotence or intestinal failure.
consistency, but should not necessarily be regarded as the The impact of IBD on society is disproportionately high, as standard of care for all patients. Individual cases must be presentation often occurs at a young age and has the managed on the basis of all clinical data available for that potential to cause lifelong ill health. A hospital serving a case. Patient preferences should be sought and decisions population of 300 000 would typically see 45–90 new cases jointly made between patient and health professional.
per annum and have 500 under follow up, but many will befollowed up in the community. There is a small increase in mortality for both UC (hazard ratio 1.44, 95% CI 1.31 to 1.58) A comprehensive literature search was performed using and CD (HR 1.73, CI 1.54 to 1.96), largely dependent on age electronic databases (Medline, PubMed, and Ovid; keywords: ‘‘inflammatory bowel disease’’, ‘‘ulcerative colitis’’, and‘‘Crohn’s disease’’) by Dr Carter. A preliminary document was drafted by Dr Carter, Dr Lobo, and contributing authors.
It is important to recognise the high calibre of care that can This was summarised by Dr Travis and revised after be delivered in smaller hospitals, because this is greatly circulation first to the committee and then to members of valued by individual patients, but this is dependent on high the IBD section of the BSG, before submission to the Clinical quality training of clinicians working in this environment.
Larger centres should support district general hospitalsthrough multidisciplinary facilities for managing complex IBD. The nature of the symptoms and complexity of IBD The guidelines conform to the North of England evidence mean that facilities are necessary beyond those normally based guidelines development project. The grading of each provided for outpatients or inpatients. Measurable standards recommendation is dependent on the category of evidence of care would assist the process of change in submissions to Primary Care Trusts and Strategic Health Authorities. As N Grade A—requires at least one randomised controlled trial there has been little objective research in this area, criteria for as part of a body of literature of overall good quality and standards are proposed, but arbitrary targets avoided: consistency addressing the specific recommendation N Rapid access to clinic appointments for patients with Grade B—requires the availability of clinical studies with- N Rapid access to advice and clinic appointments for patients out randomisation on the topic of consideration (evidence N Adequate time and space in outpatients and wards to meet Grade C—requires evidence from expert committee reportsor opinions or clinical experience of respected authorities, the unpredictable pattern of disease, allow discussion, in the absence of directly applicable clinical studies of good explanation or counselling, and provide information or Abbreviations: 5-ASA, 5-aminosalicylic acid; AZA, azathioprine; CD, Crohn’s disease; CRP, C reactive protein; CsA, cyclosporin; ESR, The content and evidence base for these guidelines should be erythrocyte sedimentation rate; FBC, full blood count; IBD, inflammatory revised within three years of publication, to take account of bowel disease; IFX, infliximab; MP, mercaptopurine; MTX, methotrexate; new evidence. We recommend that these guidelines are NNT, number needed to treat; TPMT, thiopurine methyl transferase; UC, audited and request feedback from all users.
N Easy access to private, clean toilet facilities for patients both as outpatients and as inpatients.
Individuals with IBD strongly believe that in addition to the N Administrative and clinical support for different models of care (hospital based, shared care systems with primary N sufficient information to make a rational personal choice A multidisciplinary team that manages patients with IBD N close integration of medical and surgical management; in hospitals that train specialists in the care of IBD.
N straightforward access to support services, including dieticians, psychological support, and social workers; N clearly stated management plans on discharge with well The above standards are appropriate topics to audit current provision of care. Many other aspects lend themselves toaudit, including the availability of patient information,proportion and monitoring of patients on immunomodulator therapy, outcome of admission for severe colitis, time lost to Patients consider that the following should be central work, cancer surveillance, or mortality.
N continuity of care, both in hospital and in primary care.
Patients dislike seeing different individuals at each visit; N a system that allows a choice about appropriate long term 3.1 Understanding the patient’s experience The following views have been expressed by the membership of the National Association for Colitis and Crohn’s Disease.
N attention to physical, emotional, and quality of life issues; Patients recognise that desirable goals cannot always be met within resource constraints, but consider that demonstrable help with problems related to insurance, employment, or efforts should be made to achieve them.
N Someone with IBD should be seen as an individual and N Individuals differ in the way they choose to live with IBD.
Views of ‘‘right’’ and ‘‘wrong’’ approaches to living with 3.5.1 That patient driven criteria be used as one criterion for auditing the quality of care at hospitals treating N Individuals often develop expertise about their own patients with inflammatory bowel diseases.
condition and needs which should be respected.
N Problems that cannot be solved by the healthcare team are best acknowledged and recognised as being impossible to N Patients place a high value on sympathy, compassion, and Ulcerative colitis is characterised by diffuse mucosal inflam- mation limited to the colon. Disease extent can be broadly N There should be equitable access to treatments and divided into distal and more extensive disease. ‘‘Distal’’ services and early referral of complex cases to specialist disease refers to colitis confined to the rectum (proctitis) or centres when local expertise is exceeded.
rectum and sigmoid colon (proctosigmoiditis). More exten-sive disease includes ‘‘left sided colitis’’ (up to the splenicflexure), ‘‘extensive colitis’’ (up to the hepatic flexure), and pancolitis (affecting the whole colon).
Delay in diagnosis is common and may be accompanied by Crohn’s disease is characterised by patchy, transmural dismissal of symptoms as due to stress. Two objectives would inflammation, which may affect any part of the gastro- intestinal tract. It may be defined by location (terminal ileal,colonic, ileocolic, upper gastrointestinal), or by pattern of N rapid access to hospital investigation; disease (inflammatory, fistulating, or stricturing). These N referral to a hospital that has a gastroenterologist who variables have been combined in the Vienna classification.
About 5% of patients with IBD affecting the colon areunclassifiable after considering clinical, radiological, endo-scopic, and pathological criteria, because they have some features of both conditions. This can be termed indeterminate Patients want the emotional impact of the diagnosis to be taken into account, with several opportunities to discuss theimplications and significance. Not all discussions need to be with the consultant. Objectives for care around the time of The incidence of UC is approximately 10–20 per 100 000 per year with a reported prevalence of 100–200 per 100 000. The incidence remains stable, but the prevalence is likely to be an the offer of suitable written information and audio-visual underestimate, because this implies an average disease duration (prevalence/incidence) of 10 years for a condition N information about patient support groups and sources of that is known to last for life. There are marked differences between ethnic groups with some (such as Ashkenazi Jews) N an opportunity to meet a non-medical member of staff, having a particularly high incidence. The incidence of CD such as a clinical nurse specialist or medical social worker is around 5–10 per 100 000 per year with a prevalence of 50–100 per 100 000; the same considerations about Guidelines for the management of IBD in adults underestimating prevalence apply. In contrast to UC how- treatment in the first 10 years of disease and approximately ever, the incidence of CD may be increasing. Both UC and CD 70–80% will require surgery within their lifetime. The overall are diseases of young people with a peak incidence between mortality of CD is slightly higher than the normal population the ages of 10 and 40 years. They may, however, affect people and is greatest in the 2 years after diagnosis or in those with of any age and 15% of people are over the age of 60 at upper gastrointestinal disease. The clinical course of CD is diagnosis. Up to 240 000 people are affected by IBD in the also characterised by exacerbations and remission. CD tends to cause greater disability than UC with only 75% of patientsfully capable of work in the year after diagnosis and 15% of patients unable to work after 5–10 years of disease.
The aetiologies of both UC and CD remain unknown. Theconsensus is that both diseases are a response to environ- mental triggers (infection, drugs, or other agents) in The diagnosis of IBD is confirmed by clinical evaluation and a genetically susceptible individuals. The genetic component combination of biochemical, endoscopic, radiological, histo- is stronger in CD than in UC. Smoking increases the risk of logical, or nuclear medicine based investigations. In the case CD, but decreases the risk of UC through unknown of UC the diagnosis should be made on the basis of clinical suspicion supported by appropriate macroscopic findings on Theories and evidence for pathogenetic mechanisms are sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy, typical histological findings too complex to be considered in this document. The broad on biopsy, and negative stool examinations for infectious areas examined are epidemiology, the gut/environmental agents. For CD the diagnosis depends on demonstrating interface, the inflammatory process, and genetics of each focal, asymmetric, and often granulomatous inflammation disease. Epidemiological studies have considered diet, drug, but the investigations selected vary according to the present- and vaccination history, seasonal variation, water supply, and ing manifestations, physical findings, and complications.
includes work on luminal bacteria, biofilms, the epithelial glycocalyx and mucus, epithelial barrier function, epithelial A full history should include recent travel, medication, remodelling, and immune/epithelial interactions. The inflam- smoking, and family history. Details should include the stool matory process has been examined through cell signalling frequency and consistency, urgency, rectal bleeding, abdom- pathways, cytokine profiles, eicosanoid and other inflamma- inal pain, malaise, fever, weight loss, and symptoms of tory mediators, lymphocyte trafficking, cell surface mole- extraintestinal (joint, cutaneous, and eye) manifestations of cules, interactions between stromal and immune cells, and IBD. General examination includes general wellbeing, pulse neuroimmune communication. Genetics have adopted a rate, blood pressure, temperature, checking for anaemia, fluid candidate gene approach, genome wide screening through depletion, weight loss, abdominal tenderness or distension, microsatellite markers and, most recently, studies on func- palpable masses, and perineal examination.
tional gene expression. Mutations of one gene (CARD15/NOD2), located on Chr 16, have been associated with small intestinal CD in white (but not oriental) populations. Twoother genes (OCTN1 and 2 on Chr 5 and DLG5 on Chr 10) Laboratory investigations should include full blood count have recently been associated with CD but these need to be (FBC), U&Es, liver function tests, and erythrocyte sedimen- confirmed by independent studies. Other genes have yet to be tation rate (ESR) or C reactive protein (CRP), as well as identified, although their existence is strongly suggested by microbiological testing for infectious diarrhoea including replicated linkage to a number of chromosomes.
Clostridium difficile toxin. Additional tests may be needed forpatients who have travelled abroad. Abdominal radiographyis essential in the initial assessment of patients with 4.4 Clinical features and pattern of disease4 12–16 suspected severe IBD: it excludes colonic dilatation and The cardinal symptom of UC is bloody diarrhoea. Associated may help assess disease extent in UC or identify proximal symptoms of colicky abdominal pain, urgency, or tenesmus constipation. In CD abdominal radiography may give an may be present. UC is a severe disease that used to carry a impression of a mass in the right iliac fossa, or show evidence high mortality and major morbidity. With modern medical and surgical management, the disease now has a slightexcess of mortality in the first two years after diagnosis, butlittle subsequent difference from the normal population.
However, a severe attack of UC is still a potentially life For all patients presenting with diarrhoea, rigid sigmoido- threatening illness. The clinical course of UC is marked by scopy should be performed unless there are immediate plans exacerbation and remission. About 50% of patients with UC to perform flexible sigmoidoscopy. Macroscopic features of have a relapse in any year. An appreciable minority has UC are loss of the vascular pattern, granularity, friability, and frequently relapsing or chronic, continuous disease and, ulceration of the rectal mucosa. A rectal biopsy is best taken overall, 20–30% of patients with pancolitis come to colect- for histology even if there are no macroscopic changes.
omy. After the first year approximately 90% of patients arefully capable of work (defined by ,1 month off work per year), although UC causes significant employment problems For mild to moderate disease, colonoscopy is usually preferable to flexible sigmoidoscopy, because the extent of Symptoms of CD are more heterogeneous, but typically disease can be assessed, but in moderate to severe disease include abdominal pain, diarrhoea, and weight loss. Systemic there is a higher risk of bowel perforation and flexible symptoms of malaise, anorexia, or fever are more common sigmoidoscopy is safer. It is appropriate to defer investiga- with CD than UC. CD may cause intestinal obstruction due to tions until the clinical condition improves. For suspected CD, strictures, fistulae (often perianal), or abscesses. Both colonoscopy to the terminal ileum and small bowel barium ulcerative and Crohn’s colitis are associated with an studies to define extent and site of disease are appropriate. A increased risk of colonic carcinoma. In CD surgery is not terminal ileal biopsy performed at colonoscopy documents curative and management is directed to minimising the the extent of examination and may find microscopic evidence impact of disease. At least 50% of patients require surgical (sulphasalazine (Salazopyrin), olsalazine (Dipentum), Double contrast barium enema is usually inferior to colono- scopy because it does not allow mucosal biopsy and mayunderestimate the extent of disease. Small bowel radiologyby follow through or intubation (small bowel enema) is the current standard for assessing the small intestine. Other The main role for 5-ASA is maintenance of remission in UC.
conditions (including tuberculosis, Behcet’s, lymphoma, All 5-ASA derivatives show comparable efficacy to sulphasa- vasculitis) may also cause ileal disease. The role of capsule lazine, but in a meta-analysis the parent compound had a endoscopy is at present unclear. White cell scanning is a safe, modest therapeutic advantage for maintaining remission non-invasive investigation, but lacks specificity. Ultrasound (odds ratio 1.29, confidence interval 1.08 to 1.57). The choice in skilled hands is a sensitive and non-invasive way of of 5-ASA is debated, but is influenced by tolerability identifying thickened small bowel loops in CD and may (mesalazine is tolerated by 80% of those unable to tolerate identify abscesses or free fluid in the peritoneum. Computed sulphasalazine), dose schedule (twice daily dosing is asso- tomography and magnetic resonance imaging, especially of ciated with better compliance) and cost. Efficacy may depend the perineum, help evaluate activity and complications of more on adherence with the prescribed dose than the delivery disease. Laparoscopy may be necessary in selected patients, system. If the delivery system is considered important, then especially where the differential diagnosis of intestinal the drug is best matched to the site of disease, by using azo- bonded compounds for distal disease. Maintenance therapywith all 5-ASA drugs may reduce the risk of colorectal cancer by up to 75% (OR 0.25, CI 0.13 to 0.48). This favours long After the diagnosis of UC or CD has been confirmed, the term treatment for patients with extensive UC. 5-ASA is less disease extent should be defined, because it determines the effective for maintaining remission in CD. Mesalazine .2 g/ best route for therapy. For UC the extent is defined as the day reduces relapse after surgery (NNT = 8), especially after proximal margin of macroscopic inflammation, because this small bowel resection (40% reduction at 18 months). It is is most clearly related to the risk of complications, including ineffective after steroid induced remission, except for those at dilatation and cancer. The implications of limited macro- high risk of relapse given 4 g/day (relapse risk on placebo 2.0, scopic disease with extensive microscopic inflammation remain unclear. For CD both small bowel and colon shouldbe assessed.
Active disease25 28–31Higher doses of 5-ASA (4 g/day) are more effective than placebo for inducing remission in mild UC or CD. For Pathological examination of biopsy specimens should be ulcerative colitis, greater clinical improvement (but not carried out histologically according to the BSG document A necessarily remission) is associated with doses >3 g/day.
Structured Approach to Colorectal Biopsy Assessment (Guidelines in Clinical improvement characteristically occurs at twice the Gastroenterology No 9). There should be an attempt to define remission rate. In a meta-analysis of oral 5-ASA for active the type of IBD, to mention other co-existent diagnoses or UC, of 19 trials involving 2032 patients, nine were placebo complications, and to mention the presence or absence of controlled and 10 compared mesalazine with sulphasalazine.
The outcome of interest on an intention to treat principle wasthe failure to induce remission, so that a pooled odds ratio,1.0 indicates one treatment to be more effective than another. Mesalazine was more than twice as effective as It is desirable that clinicians discuss imaging with an placebo (OR 0.39; CI 0.29 to 0.52, but not significantly better appropriate radiologist, to avoid unnecessary exposure to than sulphasalazine (OR 0.87; CI 0.63 to 1.20). In active ionising radiation. There should be a forum to review the Crohn’s ileocolitis, a meta-analysis of the three placebo results of imaging in the context of the clinical history so that controlled trials of Pentasa 4 g daily for 16 weeks in a total of appropriate management can be planned.
615 patients, showed a mean reduction of the CDAI frombaseline of 263 points, compared with 245 points for placebo (p = 0.04). While this confirms that Pentasa 4 g/day Therapy for IBD is a rapidly evolving field, with many new is superior to placebo in reducing CDAI, the clinical biological agents under investigation that are likely to change significance is not clear. Subgroup analyses do not provide therapeutic strategies radically in the next decade. Details of sufficiently clear answers to whether one group of patients the principal drugs can only be summarised in this Side effects of sulphasalazine occur in 10–45%, depending on (Including mesalazine or 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA), the dose. Headache nausea, epigastric pain, and diarrhoea are ‘‘mesalamine’’ in the USA.) Different formulations deliver most common and dose related. Serious idiosyncratic millimolar concentrations to the gut lumen. Aminosalicylates reactions (including Stevens Johnson syndrome, pancreatitis, are available as oral tablets, sachets or suspension, liquid or agranulocytosis, or alveolitis) are rare. Mesalazine intoler- foam enemas, or suppositories. They act on epithelial cells by ance occurs in up to 15%. Diarrhoea (3%), headache (2%), a variety of mechanisms to moderate the release of lipid nausea (2%), and rash (1%) are reported, but a systematic mediators, cytokines, and reactive oxygen species. Oral forms review has confirmed that all new 5-ASA agents are safe, with adverse events that are similar to placebo for mesalazine or olsalazine. No comparison between balsalazide and pH dependent release/resin coated (Asacol, Salofalk, or placebo has been published, but events were lower than with sulphasalazine. Acute intolerance in 3% may resemble a flare of colitis as it includes bloody diarrhoea. Recurrence on N delivery by carrier molecules, with release of 5-ASA after rechallenge provides the clue. Renal impairment (including splitting by bacterial enzymes in the large intestine interstitial nephritis and nephrotic syndrome) is rare and Guidelines for the management of IBD in adults idiosyncratic. A population based study found the risk (OR and need adjunctive therapy with thiopurines or as an 1.60, CI 1.14 to 2.26 compared with normal) to be associated with disease severity rather than the dose or type ofmesalazine. Patients with pre-existing renal impairment, other potentially nephrotoxic drugs, or comorbid disease Three broad groups can be identified, although 50% of should have renal function monitored during 5-ASA therapy.
patients report no adverse event. Early effects due tosupraphysiological doses include cosmetic (acne, moon face, oedema), sleep and mood disturbance, dyspepsia, or glucose (Oral prednisolone, prednisone, budesonide (among others), intolerance. Effects associated with prolonged use (usually or intravenous hydrocortisone, methylprednisolone.) Topical .12 weeks, but sometimes less) include posterior subcap- suppositories, foam or liquid enemas include hydrocortisone, sular cataracts, osteoporosis, osteonecrosis of the femoral prednisolone metasulphobenzoate, betamethasone, budeso- head, myopathy, and susceptibility to infection. Effects nide). Many strategies attempt to maximise topical effects during withdrawal include acute adrenal insufficiency (from while limiting systemic side effects of steroids. Budesonide sudden cessation), a syndrome of myalgia, malaise, and (Entocort, Budenofalk) is a poorly absorbed corticosteroid arthralgia (similar to recrudesence of CD), or raised with limited bioavailability and extensive first pass metabo- intracranial pressure. Complete steroid withdrawal is facili- lism that has therapeutic benefit with reduced systemic tated by early introduction of azathioprine, adjuvant nutri- 4.8.3 Thiopurines43(Azathioprine (AZA) and mercaptopurine (MP), unlicensed Corticosteroids are potent anti-inflammatory agents for therapy for IBD.) Purine antimetabolites inhibit ribonucleo- moderate to severe relapses of both UC and CD. They have tide synthesis, but the mechanism of immunomodulation is no role in maintenance therapy for either disease. They act by inducing T cell apoptosis by modulating cell (Rac1) through inhibition of several inflammatory pathways— signalling. Azathioprine is metabolised to mercaptopurine suppressing interleukin transcription, induction of IkB that stabilises the NFkB complex, suppression of arachidonic acid T(h)ioguanine has been used for treatment of IBD, but metabolism, and stimulation of apoptosis of lymphocytes caution is appropriate because of potential hepatotoxicity.
within the lamina propria of the gut.
Thiopurines are effective for both active disease and main- Trials are all over 30 years old, but results are consistent. Oral taining remission in CD and UC. A Cochrane review of the prednisolone (starting at 40 mg daily) induced remission in efficacy of AZA and MP for inducing remission in active CD 77% of 118 patients with mild to moderate disease within demonstrated a benefit for thiopurine therapy compared with 2 weeks, compared with 48% treated with 8 g/day sulphasal- placebo with an odds ratio of 2.36 (95% CI 1.57 to 3.53). This azine. A combination of oral and rectal steroids is better than equates to a number needed to treat (NNT) of 5 and a either alone. Adverse events are significantly more frequent number needed to harm (NNH) of 14. Their efficacy at at a dose of 60 mg/day compared with 40 mg/day, without maintaining remission is confirmed in another Cochrane added benefit, so 40 mg appears optimal for outpatient review (OR 2.16 (CI 1.35 to 3.47), NNT = 7). Thiopurines are management of acute UC. Too rapid reduction can be effective as maintenance therapy for CD for up to 4 years. In associated with early relapse and doses of prednisolone a prospective trial, 83 patients with CD who had been in (15 mg day are ineffective for active disease.
remission for 3.5 years on AZA were randomised to continueAZA or placebo and followed for 18 months. Relapse rates were 21% and 8% in placebo and AZA groups respectively Two major trials established corticosteroids as effective (p = 0.0195). Practical advice for patients with either CD or therapy for inducing remission in CD. The National Co- UC who are started on AZA is to continue treatment for operative Crohn’s Disease Study randomised 162 patients, 3–4 years and then stop, except in those with evidence of achieving 60% remission with 0.5–0.75 mg/kg/day predni- continuing disease activity. For the 20% who relapse, AZA sone (the higher dose for more severe disease) and tapering can be restarted and continued. No direct comparisons of the over 17 weeks, compared with 30% on placebo (NNT = 3).
efficacy of AZA and MP in IBD exist. Some patients who are The comparable European Co-operative Crohn’s Disease Study on 105 patients achieved 83% remission on prednisone1 mg/kg/day compared with 38% on placebo (NNT = 2) over 18 weeks. The high placebo response rate should be noted, The main role for thiopurines is steroid sparing (NNT = 3).
because disease activity in Crohn’s (and UC) fluctuates For arbitrary, but practical, purposes this also applies to UC.
spontaneously. No formal dose response trial has been Thiopurines should be considered for patients who require performed, but 92% remission within 7 weeks was achieved two or more corticosteroid courses within a calendar year; in 142 patients with moderately active Crohn’s given those whose disease relapses as the dose of steroid is reduced prednisone 1 mg/kg/day with no tapering. Budesonide is below 15 mg; relapse within 6 weeks of stopping steroid slightly less effective than prednisolone, but is an appropriate steroids; or postoperative prophylaxis of complex (fistulating alternative for active for active ileo-ascending colonic disease.
Efficacy should be balanced against side effects, but decisive Tailoring or optimisation of thiopurine therapy can occur treatment of active disease in conjunction with a strategy for before or during treatment. Clinicians should aim for a complete withdrawal of steroids is often appreciated by a maintenance dose of AZA of 2–2.5 mg/kg/day and 6-MP patient suffering miserable symptoms. Regimens of steroid of 1–1.5 mg/kg/day in both UC and CD. The ‘‘maximum’’ therapy vary between centres. A standard weaning strategy dose will differ between individuals and effectively means helps identify patients who relapse rapidly or do not respond that level at which leucopenia develops. Leucopenia is a myelotoxic side effect of thiopurines and the metabolic is effective for preventing relapse after remission has been phenotype of the individual can be defined by measuring induced by MTX. MTX was superior to placebo in 76 patients thiopurine methyl transferase (TPMT) activity or the TPMT randomised to 15 mg/week of MTX or placebo for 9 months (65% v 39% in remission at week 40; p = 0.04). The need forsteroids was reduced (p = 0.01). No comparable trials have addressed the role of MTX in the induction or maintenance of Patients with leukaemia who are TPMT deficient are at increased risk of myelotoxicity. This does not necessarilyapply in IBD. In one study the majority (77%) of 41 IBD patients with AZA induced bone marrow suppression did not Unlike rheumatoid arthritis, doses of ,15 mg/week are carry a TPMT mutation. Evidence that TPMT activity predicts ineffective for CD and 25 mg/week is standard. For practical other side effects or outcome is limited. It cannot yet be reasons relating to the reconstitution of parenteral cytotoxic recommended as a prerequisite to therapy, because decades drugs, oral dosing is most convenient, although parenteral of experience has shown clinical AZA to be safe in UC or CD.
administration may be more effective. Subcutaneous admin-istration may be reserved for patients with small intestinal CD who do not absorb oral MTX. Duration of therapy is Manufacturers recommend weekly FBCs for the first 8 weeks debated. The 3 year remission rate for methotrexate in one of therapy followed by blood tests at least every 3 months.
series was 51%, which compares with data on azathioprine There is no evidence that this is effective. Less frequent from the same centre (69% 3 year remission rate for monitoring (within 4 weeks of starting therapy and every 6–12 weeks thereafter) may be sufficient. It is just asimportant to advise patients to report promptly should a sore throat or other sign of infection occur.
Measurement of full blood count and liver function tests are advisable before and within 4 weeks of starting therapy, thenmonthly. The same caveats as for monitoring thiopurine The most common cause of intolerance (affecting up to 20%) therapy apply. Patients should remain under specialist follow are flu-like symptoms (myalgia, headache, diarrhoea) that characteristically occur after 2–3 weeks and cease rapidlywhen the drug is withdrawn. Profound leucopenia candevelop suddenly and unpredictably in between blood tests, although it is rare (around 3%). Hepatotoxicity and pancrea- Early toxicity from methotrexate is primarily gastrointestinal titis are uncommon (,5%). Although azathioprine is the best (nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, and stomatitis) and this may agent for maintaining remission, 28% of 622 patients be limited by co-prescription of folic acid 5 mg two or three experienced side effects. Fortunately when the drug is days apart from the MTX. Treatment is discontinued in tolerated for 3 weeks, long term benefit can be expected.
10–18% of patients because of side effects. The principal Thiopurines can reasonably be continued during pregnancy if concerns are hepatotoxicity and pneumonitis. A study of liver UC or CD has been refractory. In a study of 155 men and biopsies in IBD patients taking MTX showed mild histological women with IBD who were parents of 347 pregnancies while abnormalities, despite cumulative doses of up to 5410 mg.
taking MP there was no difference in miscarriage, congenital Surveillance liver biopsy is not warranted, but if the AST abnormality, or infection rate in the thiopurine group doubles then it is sensible to withhold MTX until it returns to compared with a control group. The risk of malignancy normal, before a rechallenge. The prevalence of pneumonitis related to thiopurine is at best small. Large audits of up to 755 has been estimated at two to three cases per 100 patient years patients have shown no increased risk of lymphoma or other of exposure, but large series have not reported any cases.
cancers in IBD patients treated with AZA. A primary careprescribing database study of nearly 1500 IBD patients who received at least one prescription of AZA/6-MP also showed (Oral or intravenous, unlicensed therapy for UC.) Ciclosporin no overall risk (relative risk 1.6 (95% CI 0.1 to 8.8)) of (CsA) is an inhibitor of calcineurin, preventing clonal lymphoma but little is known about the duration or dose of expansion of T-cell subsets. It has a rapid onset of action therapy of this cohort. Decision analysis suggests that the and is effective in the management of severe UC.
benefits of AZA outweigh any risk of lymphoma in IBD.
(Oral, subcutaneous or intramuscular injection, unlicensed Intravenous CsA is rapidly effective as a salvage therapy for therapy for IBD.) Polyglutamated metabolites of methotrex- patients with refractory colitis, who would otherwise face ate inhibit dihydrofolate reductase, but this cytotoxic effect colectomy, but its use is controversial because of toxicity and does not explain its anti-inflammatory effect. Inhibition of long term failure rate. Toxicity can be reduced by using lower cytokine and eicosanoid synthesis probably contribute.
doses (2 mg/kg/day intravenously), by oral microemulsionciclosporin, or by monotherapy without corticosteroids. The drug should rarely be continued for more than 3–6 monthsand its main role is a bridge to thiopurine therapy. A meta- Methotrexate (MTX) is effective for inducing remission or analysis of four randomised controlled trials showed that CsA preventing relapse in CD. At present, the role of MTX is in the treatment of active or relapsing CD in those refractory to orintolerant of AZA or MP. In a controlled study, 141 steroiddependent patients were randomised to either 25 mg/week of intramuscular MTX or placebo for 16 weeks, with a Measurement of blood pressure, full blood count, renal concomitant daily dose of prednisolone (20 mg at initiation) function, and CsA concentration (aim 100–200 ng/ml) are that was reduced over a 3 month period. More patients in the advisable at 0, 1, and 2 weeks, then monthly. Measurement MTX treated group were able to withdraw steroids and enter of blood cholesterol and magnesium are appropriate before remission compared with placebo (39% v 19%; p = 0.025). It Guidelines for the management of IBD in adults Minor side effects occur in 31–51%, including tremor, National guidelines govern its use. In the UK, it is limited to paraesthesiae, malaise, headache, abnormal liver function, patients with severe active CD (Harvey Bradshaw index .8, gingival hyperplasia, and hirsutism. Major complications are CD activity index .300) refractory to or intolerant of steroids reported in 0–17%, including renal impairment, infections, and immunosuppression, for whom surgery is inappropriate.
and neurotoxicity. The risk of seizures is increased in patients Retreatment is often necessary, after a variable interval (most commonly 8–16 weeks). All patients should receive an (,0.50 mmol/l). Oral therapy is an alternative in these immunomodulator (AZA, MP, or MTX) unless these cannot circumstances. Prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneu- be tolerated, as these probably extend the interval and reduce monia is an individual decision dependent on nutritional development of antibodies to IFX that in turn reduce efficacy state, concomitant immunomodulator therapy, and duration and increase side effects. Because IFX is associated with a of therapy, but other opportunistic infections (for example, four- or fivefold increase in risk of tuberculosis, all patients should have a chest x ray to exclude past or present infectionand be asked about previous BCG vaccination before IFX infusion. Tuberculin testing can be limited to those who have not had BCG and who are not on immunomodulators.
Infliximab (IFX) (Remicade) is a chimeric anti-TNF mono- Patients with evidence of previous tuberculosis should be clonal antibody with potent anti-inflammatory effects, seen by a thoracic physician. Guidelines for chemoprophy- possibly dependent on apoptosis of inflammatory cells.
laxis are being produced by the British Thoracic Society Numerous controlled trials have demonstrated efficacy in both active and fistulating CD. Guidelines for the use ofinfliximab have been produced by the National Institute ofClinical Excellence (www.nice.org.uk, guideline no 40).
Side effects74 75Treatment with IFX is relatively safe if used for appropriateindications. Infusion reactions (during or shortly after infusion) are rare and respond to slowing the infusion rate A multicentre, double blind study in 108 patients with or treatment with antihistamines, paracetamol, and some- moderate to severe CD refractory to 5-ASA, corticosteroids, times corticosteroids. Anaphylactic reactions have been and/or immunomodulators, demonstrated an 81% response reported. A delayed reaction of joint pain and stiffness, fever, rate at 4 weeks after 5 mg/kg IFX compared with 17% given myalgia, and malaise may occur if there has been an interval placebo. The duration of response varied, but 48% who had .1 year following a previous infusion and can be limited by received 5 mg/kg still had a response at week 12. The pretreatment with hydrocortisone. Infection is the main ACCENT-1 study was the definitive retreatment trial.
concern. Active sepsis (for example, an abscess) is an Maintenance of remission in 335 responders to a single absolute contraindication, as this risks overwhelming septi- infusion of IFX 5 mg/kg for active CD (out of an initial 573) caemia. Reactivation or development of tuberculosis has been was examined. The protocol was complex. In broad terms, reported in 24/100 000 patients with rheumatoid arthritis patients were treated with placebo, 5 mg/kg or 10 mg/kg given anti-TNF therapy, compared with 6/100 000 not given every 8 weeks until week 46. At week 30, 21% of the placebo such treatment. IFX may exacerbate existing cardiac failure.
treated patients were in remission compared with 39% of the The theoretical risk of lymphoproliferative disorders or patients treated with 5 mg/kg infusions (p = 0.003) and 45% malignancy (in view of the role of endogenous TNF in of those treated with 10 mg/kg infusions (p = 0.0002). IFX is tumour suppression) has not been confirmed in post- licensed but not yet approved by NICE for maintenance marketing surveillance, but follow up is short. IFX is best avoided in those with a history of malignancy.
IFX is the first agent to show a therapeutic effect for fistulising CD in a controlled trial. Ninety four patients withdraining abdominal or perianal fistulas of at least 3 months’ Therapeutic decisions depend on disease activity and extent.
duration were treated. 68% in the 5 mg/kg group and 56% in Disease activity is best evaluated objectively using a clinical the 10 mg/kg group experienced a 50% reduction in the activity index (the Truelove & Witts’18 or the Simple ClinicalColitis19 indices are recommended). Patients with severe number of draining fistulas at two or more consecutive visits disease require hospital admission, whereas those with mild/ compared with 26% given placebo (p = 0.002 and p = 0.02, moderate disease can generally be managed as outpatients.
respectively). The problem is that the duration of this effect Disease extent can broadly be divided into distal and more was in most cases limited to only 3 or 4 months. A large extensive disease. Topical management is appropriate for retreatment trial for fistulating CD (ACCENT-II) has been some patients with active disease. This is usually the case for conducted. A total of 306 patients with actively draining those with proctitis and often the case if the disease extends enterocutaneous fistulae were treated with three induction into the sigmoid. For those with more extensive disease, oral infusions of IFX 5 mg/kg at weeks 0, 2, and 6. Of the 306, 195 or parenteral therapy are the mainstays of treatment, (69%) responded and these were randomised to 5 mg/kg although some of these patients may get additional benefit maintenance infusions or placebo every 8 weeks. Patients who lost response were switched from placebo to activetreatment at 5 mg/kg, or the retreatment dose increasedfrom 5 to 10 mg/kg. At the end of the 12 month trial, 46% 5.1. Active left sided or extensive UC22 28 32 37–39 47 76 of the patients on active retreatment had a fistula response For the purposes of these guidelines, ‘‘left sided’’ disease is versus 23% on placebo (p = 0.001). Complete response (all defined as disease extending proximal to the sigmoid fistulae closed) was observed in 36% of patients on active descending junction up to the splenic flexure and ‘‘extensive’’ treatment, compared with 19% on placebo (p = 0.009).
UC as extending proximal to the splenic flexure. Disease Treatment of fistulising CD with IFX is not currently activity should be confirmed by sigmoidoscopy and infection approved by NICE unless criteria for severe active disease excluded, although treatment need not wait for microbiolo- For the treatment of active, left sided, or extensive UC: corticosteroids should be treated with oral prednisolone 40 mg daily. Topical agents may be used as adjunctive Mesalazine 2–4 g daily or balsalazide 6.75 g daily are therapy in this situation (grade A).
effective first line therapy for mild to moderately active N Prednisolone should be reduced gradually according to severity and patient response, generally over 8 weeks N Olsalazine 1.5–3 g daily has a higher incidence of diarrhoea in pancolitis (grade A) and is best for patients N Sulphasalazine 2–4 g daily has a higher incidence of side with left sided disease, or intolerance of other 5-ASA.
effects compared with newer 5-ASA drugs (grade A).
N Sulphasalazine has a higher incidence of side effects Selected patients, such as those with a reactive arthro- compared with newer 5-ASA drugs (grade A). Selected patients, such as those with a reactive arthropathy, may N Topical mesalazine alone or oral mesalazine alone are effective, but less effective than combination therapy, so N Prednisolone 40 mg daily is appropriate for patients in combination therapy is appropriate (grade B).
whom a prompt response is required, or those with mild to N Proximal constipation should be treated with stool bulking moderately active disease, in whom mesalazine in appro- priate dose has been unsuccessful (grade B).
N Prednisolone should be reduced gradually according to severity and patient response, generally over 8 weeks.
More rapid reduction is associated with early relapse (gradeC).
5.2.1 Active distal colitis should be treated with topical N Long term treatment with steroids is undesirable. Patients mesalazine or topical steroid combined with oral with chronic active steroid dependent disease should be mesalazine or corticosteroids to give prompt relief of treated with azathioprine 1.5–2.5 mg/kg/day or mercapto- purine 0.75–1.5 mg/kg/day (grade A).
5.2.2 There is insufficient evidence to recommend the use N Topical agents (either steroids or mesalazine) may be added to the above agents. Although they are unlikely tobe effective alone, they may benefit some patients withtroublesome rectal symptoms (grade B).
N Ciclosporin may be effective for severe, steroid refractory colitis (grade A) (see section 5.3).
5.3 Severe UC 62–66 82–86Patients who have failed to respond to maximal oraltreatment with a combination of mesalazine and/or steroids with or without topical therapy, or those who present withsevere disease defined by the Truelove and Witts’ criteria18should be admitted for intensive intravenous therapy 5.1.1 Active left sided or extensive ulcerative colitis should (below). Monitoring of pulse rate, stool frequency, C reactive be treated with oral aminosalicylates or cortico- protein, and plain abdominal radiograph help identify those steroids to give prompt relief of symptoms, after the who need colectomy. Close liaison with a surgeon who different options have been discussed and the views specialises in the management of patients with UC should be maintained. Acute onset UC is sometimes difficult to 5.1.2 There is insufficient evidence to recommend the use distinguish from infective colitis, but treatment with cortico- of other agents outside trials or specialist centres.
steroids should not be delayed until stool microbiologyresults are available.
The approach to treatment of severe UC involves: 5.2 Active distal UC28 77–81The term ‘‘distal colitis’’ applies to disease up to the sigmoid N Physical examination daily to evaluate abdominal tender- descending junction, including ‘‘proctitis’’, meaning disease ness and rebound tenderness. Joint medical and surgical limited to the rectum. Patient preference has a greater influence on management than for extensive colitis, in view N Recording of vital signs four times daily and more often if of the option of topical or systemic therapy. Choice of topical formulation should be determined by the proximal extent of N A stool chart to record number and character of bowel the inflammation (suppositories for disease to the recto- movements, including the presence or absence of blood sigmoid junction, foam or liquid enemas for more proximal disease) along with patient preference, such as ease of N Measurement of FBC, ESR, or CRP, serum electrolytes, serum albumin, and liver function tests every 24–48 hours.
N Daily abdominal radiography if colonic dilatation (trans- N In mild to moderate disease, topical mesalazine 1 g daily verse colon diameter >5.5 cm) is detected at presenta- (in appropriate form for extent of disease) combined with tion. If not dilated, there should be a low threshold oral mesalazine 2–4 g daily, olsalazine 1.5–3 g daily, or for further radiological assessment if there is clinical balsalazide 6.75 g daily, are effective first line therapy N Intravenous fluid and electrolyte replacement to correct N Topical corticosteroids are less effective than topical and prevent dehydration or electrolyte imbalance, with mesalazine, and should be reserved as second line therapy blood transfusion to maintain a haemoglobin .10 g/dl for patients who are intolerant of topical mesalazine (grade N Subcutaneous heparin to reduce the risk of thrombo- N Patients who have failed to improve on a combination of N Nutritional support (by enteral or parenteral route) if the oral mesalazine with either topical mesalazine or topical Guidelines for the management of IBD in adults N Intravenous corticosteroids (hydrocortisone 400 mg/day or is some evidence that maintenance therapy reduces the risk methylprednisolone 60 mg/day) (grade B). Higher doses of steroids offer no greater benefit, but lower doses are less N Oral mesalazine 1–2 g daily or balsalazide 2.5 g daily Withdrawal of anticholinergic, antidiarrhoeal agents, should be considered as first line therapy (grade A).
NSAID and opioid drugs, which risk precipitating colonic Sulphasalazine 2–4 g daily has a higher incidence of side effects compared with newer 5-ASA drugs (grade A).
Continuation of aminosalicylates once oral intake resumes, although these have not been studied in severe Selected patients, such as those with a reactive arthro- Topical therapy (corticosteroids or mesalazine) if tolerated Olsalazine 1.5–3 g daily has a higher incidence of and retained, although there have been limited studies in diarrhoea in pancolitis (grade A) and is best for patients with left sided disease, or intolerance of other 5-ASA.
Intravenous antibiotics only if infection is considered, or Topical mesalazine 1 g daily may be used in patients with immediately before surgery (grade C). Controlled trials of distal disease with/without oral mesalazine, but patients intravenous metronidazole and oral vancomycin in acute are less likely to be compliant (grade A).
severe UC have shown no significant benefit (grade A).
N All aminosalicylates have been associated with nephro- N Immediate surgical referral if there is evidence of toxic toxicity, which appears both to be idiosyncratic and in part megacolon (diameter .5.5 cm, or caecum .9 cm). The dose related. Reactions are rare, but patients with pre- urgency with which surgery is undertaken after recogni- existing renal disease are at higher risk. Occasional tion of colonic dilatation depends on the condition of the (perhaps annual) measurement of creatinine is sensible, patient: the greater the dilatation and the greater the although there is no evidence that monitoring is necessary degree of systemic toxicity, the sooner surgery should be or effective. Aminosalicylates should be stopped if renal undertaken, but signs may be masked by steroid therapy (grade C). In selected patients with mild dilatation, N Most patients require lifelong therapy, although some expectant management may be undertaken. Any clinical, patients with very infrequent relapses (especially if with laboratory, or radiological deterioration mandates immedi- limited extent of disease) may remain in remission on no N Objective re-evaluation on the third day of intensive N The advantages and disadvantages of continued treatment treatment. A stool frequency of .8/day or CRP .45 mg/l with aminosalicylates are best discussed with the patient, at 3 days appears to predict the need for surgery in 85% of especially if a patient has been in remission for a cases. Surgical review and input from specialist colorectal substantial length of time (.2 years) (grade B).
nurse or stomatherapist is appropriate at this stage. There N Steroids are ineffective at maintaining remission (grade A).
is no benefit from intravenous steroids beyond 7–10 days N Azathioprine 1.5–2.5 mg/kg/day or mercaptopurine 0.75–1.5 mg/kg/day (see also section 6.5) are effective at N Consideration of colectomy or intravenous ciclosporin maintaining remission in UC (grade A). However, in view 2 mg/kg/day if there is no improvement during the first of toxicity they should be reserved for patients who 3 days (grade A). Following induction of remission, oral frequently relapse despite adequate doses of amino- ciclosporin for 3–6 months is appropriate (grade B).
salicylates, or are intolerant of 5-ASA therapy (grade C).
Intravenous ciclosporin alone may be as effective as It is common practice to continue aminosalicylates methylprednisolone, but potential side effects mean with azathioprine, but limited evidence that this is that it is rarely an appropriate single first line therapy N Patients with gastrointestinal intolerance of azathioprine may be cautiously tried on mercaptopurine before beingconsidered for other therapy or surgery (grade B).
5.3.1 Severe ulcerative colitis should be managed jointly by a gastroenterologist in conjunction with a colo-rectal surgeon.
5.4.1 Patients with ulcerative colitis should normally receive 5.3.2 Patients should be kept informed of treatment and maintenance therapy with aminosalicylates, prognosis, including a 25–30% chance of needing azathioprine, or mercaptopurine to reduce the risk 5.3.3 Further controlled trials should be conducted in the medical treatment of severe ulcerative colitis.
6.0 MEDICAL MANAGEMENT OF CROHN’S DISEASEThe severity of CD is more difficult to assess than UC. The 5.4 Maintenance of remission22–24 32 34 47 52 54 77 87–89 general principles are to consider the site (ileal, ileocolic, Lifelong maintenance therapy is generally recommended for colonic, other), pattern (inflammatory, stricturing, fistulat- all patients, especially those with left sided or extensive ing) and activity of the disease before treatment decisions are disease, and those with distal disease who relapse more than made in conjunction with the patient.
once a year. Discontinuation of medication may be reason- An alternative explanation for symptoms other than active able for those with distal disease who have been in remission disease should be considered (such as bacterial overgrowth, for 2 years and are averse to such medication. However, there bile salt malabsorption, fibrotic strictures, dysmotility, gall stones) and disease activity confirmed (usually by CRP orESR) before starting steroids. Individuals with CD have many investigations over their lifetime and imaging (colonoscopy,small bowel radiology) should not be repeated unless it will 6.1.1 Initial treatment of active ileal or ileocolonic Crohn’s alter management or a surgical decision depends on the disease with high dose mesalazine, corticosteroids, nutritional therapy, or surgery should be tailored tothe severity of disease and take the views of the disease25 29–31 40–44 57 58 69–71 91–93 6.1.2 There is insufficient evidence to recommend the use Patients should be encouraged to participate actively in of other agents outside trials or specialist centres.
the decision to treat with high dose aminosalicylates,different corticosteroids, nutritional therapy, antibiotics,new biological agents, or surgery. Infliximab is considered 6.2 Fistulating and perianal disease72 73 95 96 Active perianal disease or fistulae are often associated with active CD elsewhere in the gastrointestinal tract. The initial In mild ileocolonic CD, high dose mesalazine (4 g/daily) aim should be to treat active disease and sepsis. For more may be sufficient initial therapy (grade A).
complex, fistulating disease, the approach involves defining For patients with moderate to severe disease, or those with the anatomy, supporting nutrition, and potential surgery. For mild to moderate ileocolonic CD that has failed to respond perianal disease, MRI and examination under anaesthetic are to oral mesalazine, oral corticosteroids such as predniso- lone 40 mg daily is appropriate (grade A).
N Prednisolone should be reduced gradually according to N Metronidazole 400 mg tds (grade A) and/or ciprofloxacin severity and patient response, generally over 8 weeks.
500 mg bd (grade B) are appropriate first line treatments More rapid reduction is associated with early relapse (grade N Azathioprine 1.5–2.5 mg/kg/day or mercaptopurine N Budesonide 9 mg daily is appropriate for patients with 0.75–1.5 mg/kg/day are potentially effective for simple isolated ileo-caecal disease with moderate disease activity, perianal fistulae or enterocutaneous fistulae where distal but marginally less effective than prednisolone (grade A).
obstruction and abscess have been excluded (grade A).
N Intravenous steroids (hydrocortisone 400 mg/day or N Infliximab (three infusions of 5 mg/kg at 0, 2, and 6 methylprednisolone 60 mg/day) are appropriate for weeks) should be reserved for patients whose perianal or patients with severe disease (grade B). Concomitant enterocutaneous fistulae are refractory to other treatment intravenous metronidazole is often advisable, because it and should be used as part of a strategy that includes may be difficult to distinguish between active disease and immunomodulation and surgery (grade A).
N Surgery (section 7), including Seton drainage, fistulect- N Elemental or polymeric diets are less effective than omy, and the use of advancement flaps is appropriate for corticosteroids, but may be used to induce remission in persistent or complex fistulae in combination with medical selected patients with active CD who have a contra- indication to corticosteroid therapy, or who would N Elemental diets or parenteral nutrition have a role as themselves prefer to avoid such therapy (grade A).
adjunctive therapy, but not as sole therapy (grade B).
N Elemental or polymeric diets are appropriate adjunctive N There is insufficient evidence to recommend other agents outside clinical trials or specialist centres.
N Total parenteral nutrition is appropriate adjunctive ther- apy in complex, fistulating disease (grade B).
Sulphasalazine 4 g daily is effective for active colonicdisease, but cannot be recommended as first line therapyin view of a high incidence of side effects. It may be 6.2.1 Controlled therapeutic trials combining medical and appropriate in selected patients (grade A).
surgical therapy in perianal Crohn’s disease should Metronidazole 10–20 mg/kg/day, although effective, is notusually recommended as first line therapy for CD in viewof the potential for side effects (grade A). It has a role inselected patients with colonic or treatment resistantdisease, or those who wish to avoid steroids.
The same general principles apply, although there are no Topical mesalazine may be effective in left sided colonic randomised controlled trials in the treatment of gastroduo- CD of mild to moderate activity (grade B).
denal or diffuse small bowel disease.
Azathioprine 1.5–2.5 mg/kg/day or mercaptopurine0.75–1.5 mg/kg/day may be used in active CD as adjunc- N Oral Crohn’s disease. This is best managed in conjunction tive therapy and as a steroid sparing agent. However, its with a specialist in oral medicine. Topical steroids, topical slow onset of action precludes its use as a sole therapy tacrolimus, intra-lesional steroid injections, enteral nutri- tion, and infliximab may have a role in management but N Infliximab 5 mg/kg is effective (grade A), but is best there are no randomised controlled trials.
avoided in patients with obstructive symptoms (see N Gastroduodenal disease. Symptoms are often relieved by proton pump inhibitors. Surgery is difficult and may be N Surgery should be considered for those who have failed medical therapy and may be appropriate as primary N Diffuse small bowel disease. Stricture dilatation or stricture- therapy in patients with limited ileal or ileo-caecal disease plasty with or without triamcinolone injection should be considered. Nutritional support before and after surgery is Guidelines for the management of IBD in adults usually essential. Other approaches, including the combi- N Monitoring the FBC to detect neutropenia is advisable, nation of infliximab with surgery for residual strictures, although there is no evidence that this is effective because profound neutropenia and sepsis can develop rapidly. TheFBC is best checked within 4 weeks of starting therapyand every 6–12 weeks thereafter, although may be done 6.4 Maintenance of remission25 27 31 36 40 45 46 52 59 71 100–103 more frequently. Routine measurement of thiopurine The efficacy of drug therapy appears to depend on whether methyltransferase activity before treatment, which may remission was achieved with medical or surgical therapy, on identify some (but not all) patients at risk of neutropenia, the risk of relapse, and site of disease. Smoking cessation is cannot yet be recommended but is debated. Large published probably the most important factor in maintaining remission.
series report safe use of azathioprine without TPMT assay.
N Methotrexate IM 25 mg weekly for up to 16 weeks followed by 15 mg weekly is effective for chronic active All smokers should be strongly advised to stop (grade A), disease (grade A). Oral dosing is effective for many patients with help (counselling, nicotine patches, or substitutes) N Infliximab (5 mg/kg) should be reserved for patients with Mesalazine has limited benefit and is ineffective at doses moderate to severe CD, who are refractory to or intolerant ,2 g/day, or for those who have needed steroids to induce of treatment with steroids, mesalazine, azathioprine/ mercaptopurine, and methotrexate, and where surgery is Azathioprine 1.5–2.5 mg/kg/day or mercaptopurine 0.75–1.5 mg/kg are effective, but reserved as second linetherapy because of potential toxicity (grade A).
Methotrexate (15–25 mg IM weekly) is effective forpatients whose active disease has responded to IMmethotrexate (grade A). It is appropriate for those 6.5.1 Immunomodulation with azathioprine, mercaptopur- intolerant of, or who have failed, azathioprine/mercapto- ine, or methotrexate should be tried if steroids cannot purine therapy (grade B) once potential toxicity and other be withdrawn without deterioration in disease options, including surgery, have been discussed with the patient. Folic acid 5 mg once a week, taken 3 days aftermethotrexate, may reduce side effects. Subcutaneous or oral therapy may be effective (grade B).
Infliximab is effective at a dose of 5–10 mg/kg every 8 weeks in patients who have responded to an initial For UC, surgery should be advised for disease not responding infusion 12 weeks earlier, for up to 44 weeks (grade A). It to intensive medical therapy. The decision to operate is best is best used as part of treatment strategy including taken by the gastroenterologist and colorectal surgeon in immunomodulation once other options, including surgery, conjunction with the patient. Other patients with dysplasia or have been discussed with the patient (grade B).
carcinoma, poorly controlled disease, recurrent acute on Sulphasalazine cannot be recommended (grade A).
chronic episodes of UC, or those with a retained rectal stump N Corticosteroids, including budesonide, are not effective following previous colectomy should be counselled regarding (grade A), although some patients have chronic active disease who appear steroid dependent (below).
For CD, surgery should only be undertaken for sympto- matic rather than asymptomatic, radiologically identifieddisease, because it is potentially panenteric and usually recurs following surgery. Resections should be conservative.
There are few randomised controlled trials of surgical 6.4.1 Patients with Crohn’s disease who smoke should be options and practice in IBD. General principles are as follows: 6.4.2 Immunomodulation with azathioprine, mercaptopur- N Patients requiring surgery for IBD are best managed under ine, or methotrexate is usually appropriate if patients the joint care of a surgeon and a gastroenterologist with an relapse more than once per year as steroids are N Preoperative counselling and marking of stoma sites should be performed by a clinical colorectal nursespecialist in stoma therapy (grade C).
N Midline incisions should usually be employed for IBD patients requiring laparotomy (grade B).
Long term treatment with steroids is undesirable. Patients N The procedure of choice in acute fulminant UC or CD is a who have a poor response to steroids can be divided into subtotal colectomy leaving a long rectal stump, either steroid refractory and steroid dependent. Steroid-refractory incorporated into the lower end of the abdominal wound disease may be defined as active disease in spite of an or exteriorised as a mucus fistula, to facilitate later rectal adequate dose and duration of prednisolone (>20 mg/d for excision and minimise the risk of intraperitoneal dehis- >2 weeks) and steroid dependence as a relapse when the steroid dose is reduced below 20 mg/day, or within 6 weeks of N Patients requiring elective surgery for UC should be stopping steroids. Such patients should be considered for counselled regarding all surgical options, including ileo- treatment with immunomodulators if surgery is not an anal pouch where appropriate (grade C).
N Resections in CD should be limited to macroscopic disease N Azathioprine 1.5–2.5 mg/kg/day, or mercaptopurine 0.75– 1.25 mg/kg/day are the first line agents of choice for N Primary anastomosis should not be performed in the steroid dependent disease (grade A).
presence of sepsis and malnutrition (grade B).
N Anal and perianal CD should be treated surgically only N Procedures for perianal CD should usually be conservative and in conjunction with medical treatment, particularly Abdominal pain is a common but under-researched feature aiming at drainage of sepsis. Repair of fistulas may be of IBD. There are many potential mechanisms. These include appropriate in selected cases with absent or minimal rectal acute and subacute obstruction in CD due to disease or adhesions, serosal and mucosal inflammation, visceralhypersensitivity, secondary irritable bowel syndrome, proc- 7.2 Preventing postoperative recurrence25 26 120–127 talgia fugax, the likely impact of emotional factors on pain For patients who smoke, cessation significantly reduces thresholds, and visceral distension where there is dilation.
postoperative relapse. Additional medical therapy should be Gall stones, renal calculi, and chronic pancreatitis should be considered for at least 18 months after surgery, especially if considered. In addition, arthritis, iritis, and painful skin disease has frequently relapsed prior to surgery, or after complications require analgesia in many patients. Most surgery for fistulating disease, or after a second operation.
analgesics are relatively ineffective and have the potential to worsen underlying disease. Where possible, treatment is of All smokers should be strongly advised to stop (grade B), the underlying cause (including corticosteroids and if appropriate, treatment of associated irritable bowel syn- Mesalazine (>2 g/day) lowers postoperative recurrence in drome). Where non-specific pain relief is needed, an opioid small bowel disease (grade A), but is ineffective after that has less effect on motility such as tramadol may help.
N Azathioprine 1.5–2.5 mg/kg/day or mercaptopurine 0.75–1.5 mg/kg/day may be used for preventing post- 8.2 Surveillance for colonic carcinoma24 133–136 operative recurrence and may be better than mesalazine The value of surveillance colonoscopy in UC remains debated.
It is important to discuss with individual patients their risk of colorectal cancer, the implications should dysplasia be Metronidazole (20 mg/kg/day for 3 months) effectively identified, the limitations of surveillance (which may miss delays recurrence after ileocolic resection for up to dysplasia), and the small, but definable, risks of colonoscopy.
18 months (grade A), but potential side effects include A joint decision on the appropriateness of surveillance can then be made, taking the patient’s views into account.
N It is advisable that patients with UC should have a colonoscopy after 8–10 years to re-evaluate disease extent (grade C). Whether patients with previously extensivedisease whose disease has regressed benefit from surveil-lance is unknown.
7.2.1 Patients who smoke should be strongly advised to stop and offered help to achieve this.
N For those with extensive colitis opting for surveillance, colonoscopies should be conducted every 3 years in the 7.2.2 Postoperative adjuvant treatment should be consid- second decade, every 2 years in the third decade, and ered in all patients and normally be used for patients annually in the fourth decade of disease (grade C).
who have frequently relapsed before surgery.
N Four random biopsies every 10 cm from the entire colon are best taken with additional samples of suspicious areas Up to 45% of patients who undergo ileal pouch surgery for UC suffer from pouchitis. Pouchitis is a new disease and N Patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis appear to represent a subgroup at higher risk of cancer, and they Conditions that mimic pouchitis (cuffitis, pelvic sepsis, pre- should have more frequent (perhaps annual) colonoscopy pouch ileitis, irritable pouch) should be considered. There are N If dysplasia (of any grade) is detected, the biopsies should be reviewed by a second gastrointestinal patholo- Metronidazole 400 mg tds (grade A) or ciprofloxacin gist and if confirmed, then colectomy is usually advisable 250 mg bd (grade B) for 2 weeks is the first line therapy N Mesalazine or corticosteroids may be used in acute pouchitis if antibiotics are ineffective (grade C).
N Long term, low dose metronidazole or ciprofloxacin are potentially effective for chronic pouchitis (grade B).
8.2.1 The appropriateness of surveillance should be N VSL3 probiotic therapy (although not widely available) discussed with patients who have ulcerative colitis may be used for chronic pouchitis (grade A).
or Crohn’s colitis and a joint decision made on thebalance of benefit to the individual.
7.3.1 The diagnosis of pouchitis should normally be made on clinical and endoscopic and histological criteria.
As both UC and CD often occur in young adults, managingIBD in pregnancy is not uncommon. It has been estimated 7.3.2 Initial therapy with metronidazole or ciprofloxacin is that approximately 25% of female patients conceive after the appropriate, which may need to be continued for diagnosis of IBD has been made. Maintaining adequate extended periods in the minority of patients who disease control during pregnancy is essential for both Guidelines for the management of IBD in adults N If planning pregnancy, patients should be counselled N Nutritional support is appropriate for those with intestinal to conceive during remission and advised to con- partial obstruction awaiting surgery (grade C), or severely tinue their maintenance medication. Before conception, symptomatic perianal disease (grade C), or those with patients should be well nourished and take folate postoperative complications. Enteral nutrition is preferred when the patient’s condition permits (grade C).
N Flexible sigmoidoscopy may be used safely where the N Serum vitamin B12 is best measured annually in patients information provided will significantly alter management.
The least extensive procedure possible should be employed(grade B).
N Patients with acute severe colitis or other life threatening 8.5 Management of extraintestinal manifestations146 complications of disease should be managed as for the Extraintestinal manifestations are found in both CD and UC.
non-pregnant patient, including abdominal radiograph.
Those that are associated with active intestinal disease largely The best interests of the fetus are served by optimal respond to therapy aimed at controlling disease activity, management of maternal IBD (grade B).
whereas those that occur whether disease is inactive or N The mode of delivery should be carefully considered. It quiescent run a course independent of therapy for intestinal may be best for patients with perianal CD or ileoanal disease. Extraintestinal manifestations are more common in pouch formation to have a Caesarian section to avoid the Crohn’s colitis and ileocolitis than in exclusively small bowel risk of damage to the anal sphincter.
N Sulphasalazine should be stopped if there is suspected N Azathioprine should in general be continued during Osteoporosis is common in patients with IBD (see BSG pregnancy, as the risks to the fetus from disease activity Guidelines for osteoporosis in coeliac disease and inflamma- appear to be greater than continued therapy. Babies born tory bowel disease), although the absolute fracture risk, to mothers on azathioprine may be lighter than normal contribution of steroids and role of prophylaxis remain a and the risk-benefit ratio should be discussed with N Corticosteroids can be used for active disease, as the risks 8.7 The role of the IBD nurse specialist151 to the pregnancy from disease activity are greater than The IBD clinical nurse specialist represents a new role for the management of patients with IBD. Nurse specialists are widely appreciated by patients, relatives, and medical staff.
Methotrexate is absolutely contraindicated in pregnancy Evolving evidence confirms their cost effectiveness (grade C).
The role of the IBD specialist nurse needs defining, but may Absolute indications for surgery are unaltered by preg- nancy and surgery should only be delayed whereaggressive medical therapy may allow critical fetal N liaising with all members of the MDT, patients, primary N Intestinal resection should be covered by a defunctioning N support of patients and carers both in hospital and the stoma. Primary anastomosis is best avoided (grade B).
N establishment of nurse-led services, including clinics, telephone helplines, and follow up, rapid access for patients, and referral to other professionals; There is little evidence to implicate dietary components in the N development of systems to enable audit and participation aetiology or pathogenesis of UC. However, patients are prone in research projects promoting the care of IBD patients; to malnutrition and its detrimental effects. There is no evidence that artificial nutritional support alters the inflam- developing and leading teaching plans for patients and matory response in UC, in contrast to CD.
other healthcare professionals involved in IBD manage- For CD, nutrition should be considered an integral component of the management of all patients. Malnutritionis common and multifactorial in origin. Nutritional status(including body mass index) is best assessed at diagnosis and periodically thereafter. As a minimum, patients should be Many sources of information are available to complement weighed on outpatient attendance or in primary care. In explanations or advice given by clinical staff. Patients usually children and adolescents, regular monitoring with height and welcome further information, but it should be appropriate weight centile charts are mandatory. Specific attention and relevant to their condition. In general, patients should be should be paid to vitamin B12 status, especially after ileal offered advice on where additional information may be obtained and help in interpreting information where theneed arises. Sources are too many to provide a comprehensive N Nutritional support is appropriate as disease modifying list. The following provide access to both general and more therapy for growth failure in children or adolescents with active small bowel disease (grade A). After detailed discussion it may be used in preference to steroids, NACC: The National Association for Colitis and Crohn’s immunomodulators, or surgery for any patient with disease, 4 Beaumont House, Sutton Road, St Albans, Herts active disease (grade B), or for those unresponsive to AL1 5HH, UK. Information Line: 01727 844296; website: mesalazine or in whom corticosteroids are contraindicated N CCFA: The Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of America; N Nutritional support is appropriate as adjunctive therapy for any malnourished patients (grade C), or for those who have N CORE/DDF: Digestive Diseases Foundation, PO Box 251, difficulty maintaining normal nutritional status (grade C).
25 Hanauer SB, Stro¨mberg U. Oral Pentasa in the treatment of active Crohn’s disease: a meta-analysis of double-blind, placebo-controlled trials. Clin Dr N Breslin, Mr R Driscoll, Dr A Forbes, Mr P Goodfellow, Dr Gastroenterol Hepatol 2004;2:379–88.
S Halligan, Professor CJ Hawkey, Dr AB Hawthorne, Professor 26 Lochs H, Mayer M, Fleig WE, et al. Prophylaxis of post-operative relapse in C O’Morain, Dr CSJ Probert, Dr DS Rampton, Ms J Sercombe, Crohn’s disease with mesalamine: European Cooperative Crohn’s Disease Dr J Shaffer, Mr AJ Shorthouse, Dr BF Warren, Ms S Wood.
Study VI. Gastroenterology 2000;118:264–273.
27 Modigliani R, Colombel JF, Dupas JL, et al. Mesalamine in Crohn’s disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
with steroid-induced remission: effect on steroid withdrawal and remissionmaintenance. Gastroenterology 1996;108:688–93.
28 Sutherland L, Roth D, Beck, et al. Oral 5-aminosalicylic acid for inducing M J Carter, Division of Molecular and Genetic Medicine, Royal remission in ulcerative colitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev A J Lobo, Gastroenterology and Liver Unit, Royal Hallamshire Hospital, 29 Feagan BG. 5-ASA therapy for active Crohn’s disease: old friends, old data and a new conclusion. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2004;2:376–8.
30 Prantera C, Cottone M, Pallone F, et al. Mesalamine in the treatment of mild S P L Travis, Gastroenterology Unit, John Radcliffe Hospital NHS Trust, to moderate active Crohn’s ileitis: results of a randomized multicenter trial.
31 Summers RW, Switz DM, Sessions JT, et al. National co-operative Crohn’s Correspondence to: Dr S Travis, Gastroenterology Unit, John Radcliffe disease study group: results of drug treatment. Gastroenterology Hospital NHS Trust, Oxford OX3 9DU, UK; simon.travis@orh.nhs.uk 32 Loftus EV, Kane SV, Bjorkman D. Systemic review: short-term adverse effects of 5-aminosalicylic acid agents in the treatment of ulcerative colitis. Aliment 1 Eccles M, Clapp Z, Grimshaw J, et al. North of England evidence based 33 Ransford RAJ, Langman MJS. Sulphasalazine and mesalazine: serious guidelines development project methods of guideline development. BMJ adverse reactions re-evaluated on the basis of suspected adverse reaction reports to the Committee on Safety of Medicines. Gut 2002;51:536–39.
2 Loftus EV Jr. Clinical epidemiology of inflammatory bowel disease: 34 van Staa TP, Travis SPL, Leufkens HJM, et al. 5-aminosalicylic acids and the incidence, prevalence, and environmental influences. Gastroenterology risk of renal disease: a large British epidemiological study. Gastroenterology 3 Longobardi T, Jacobs T, Wu L, et al. Work losses related to inflammatory 35 Franchimont D, Kino T, Galon J, et al. Glucorticoids and inflammation bowel disease in Canada: results from a national population health survey.
revisited: the state of the art. Neuroimmunomodulation 2003;10:247–60.
36 Steinhart AH, Ewe K, Griffiths AM, et al. Corticosteroids for maintaining 4 Card T, Hubbard R, Logan RFA. Mortality in inflammatory bowel disease: a remission of Crohn’s disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev population-based cohort study. Gastroenterology 2003;125:1583–90.
5 Robinson A, Thompson DG, Wilkin D, et al. Guided self-management and 37 Truelove SC, Watkinson G, Draper G. Comparison of corticosteroid and practice-directed follow-up of ulcerative colitis: a randomised trial. Lancet SASP therapy in ulcerative colitis. BMJ 1962;2:1708–11.
38 Lennard-Jones JE, Longmore AJ, Newell AC, et al. An assessment of 6 Shivananda S, Lennard-Jones JE, Logan R, et al. Incidence of inflammatory prednisone, Salazopyrin and topical hydrocortisone hemisuccinate used as bowel disease across Europe: is there a difference between north and south outpatient treatment for ulcerative colitis. Gut 1960;1:217–22.
Results of the European collaborative study on inflammatory bowel disease 39 Baron JH, Connell AM, Kanaghinis TG, et al. Outpatient treatment of ulcerative colitis: comparison between three doses of oral prednisone. BMJ 7 Sands BE. From symptom to diagnosis: clinical distinctions among various forms of intestinal inflammation. Gastroenterology 2004;126:1518–32.
40 Malchow H, Ewe K, Brandes JW, et al. European co-operative Crohn’s disease study (ECCDS): results of drug treatment. Gastroenterology Gasche C, Scholmerich J, Brynskov J, et al. A simple classification of Crohn’sdisease: report of the Working Party for the World Congress of Gastroenterology, Vienna 1998. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2000;6:8–15.
41 Modigliani R, Mary JY, Simon JF, et al. Clinical, biological and endoscopic picture of attacks of Crohn’s disease. Evolution on prednisolone. Groupe 9 Lapidus A, Bernell O, Hellers G, et al. Incidence of Crohn’s disease in d’Etude Therapeutique des Affections Inflammatoires Digestives.
Stockholm county 1955–1989. Gut 1997;41:480–6.
10 Rubin GP, Hungin AP, Kelly PJ, et al. Inflammatory bowel disease: 42 Kane SV, Schoenfeld P, Sandborn W, et al. Systematic review: the epidemiology and management in an English general practice population.
effectiveness of budesonide for Crohn’s disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2000;14:1553–9.
11 Ardizzone S, Porro GB. Inflammatory bowel disease: new insights into 43 Tiede I, Fritz G, Strand S, et al. CD28-dependent Rac1 activation is the pathogenesis and treatment. J Intern Med 2002;252:475–96.
molecular target of aziothioprine in primary human CD4+ T lymphocytes.
12 Munkholm P, Langholz E, Davidsen M, et al. Disease activity courses in a regional cohort of Crohn’s disease patients. Scand J Gastroenterol 44 Sandborn W, Sutherland L, Pearson D, et al. Azathioprine or 6- mercaptopurine for inducing remission of Crohn’s disease. Cochrane 13 Langholz E, Munkholm P, Davidsen M, et al. Course of ulcerative colitis: Database Syst Rev 2000;(2):CD000545.
analysis of changes in disease activity over years. Gastroenterology 45 Pearson DC, May GR, Fick GR, et al. Azathioprine for maintaining remission of Crohn’s disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000;(2):CD000067.
14 Munkholm P, Langholz E, Davidsen M, et al. Intestinal cancer risk and 46 Lemann M, Bouhnik Y, Colombel J, et al. Randomized, double-blind, mortality in patients with Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterology placebo-controlled, multicentre, azathioprine withdrawal trial in Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterology 2002;122:A23.
15 Lennard-Jones JE, Shivananda S and the EC-IBD Study Group. Clinical 47 Jewell DP, Truelove SC. Azathioprine in ulcerative colitis: final report on a uniformity of inflammatory bowel disease at presentation and during the first controlled therapeutic trial. BMJ 1974;ii:627–30.
year of disease in the north and south of Europe. Eur J Gastroenterol & 48 McGovern DPB, Travis SPL. Thiopurine therapy: when to start and when to stop. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2003;15:219–24.
16 Winther K, Jess T, Langholz E, et al. Survival and cause-specific mortality in 49 Hawthorne AB, Logan RFA, Hawkey CJ, et al. Randomised controlled trial of ulcerative colitis: follow-up of a population-based cohort in Copenhagen azathioprine-withdrawal in ulcerative colitis. BMJ 1992;305:20–22.
County. Gastroenterology 2003;125:1576–82.
50 Lennard L, Gibson BE, Nicole T, et al. Congenital thiopurine 17 Sandborn WJ, Feagan BG, Hanauer SB, et al. Review of activity indices and methyltransferase deficiency and 6-mercaptopurine toxicity during treatment efficacy endpoints for clinical trials of medical therapy in adults with Crohn’s for acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Arch Dis Child 1993;69:577–9.
disease. Gastroenterology 2002;122:512–30.
51 Colombel JF, Ferrari N, Debuysere H, et al. Genotypic analysis of thiopurine 18 Truelove SC, Witts LJ. Cortisone in ulcerative colitis: final report on a S-methyltransferase in patients with Crohn’s disease and severe therapeutic trial. BMJ 1955;ii:1041–8.
myelosuppression during azathioprine therapy. Gastroenterology 19 Walmsley RS, Ayres RCS, Pounder RE, et al. A simple clinical colitis index.
52 Fraser AG, Orchard TR, Jewell DP. The efficacy of azathioprine for the 20 Jenkins D, Balsitis M, Gallivan S, et al. Guidelines for the initial biopsy treatment of inflammatory bowel disease: a 30 year review. Gut diagnosis of suspected chronic idiopathic inflammatory bowel disease. The British Society of Gastroenterology Initiative. J Clin Path 1997;50:93–105.
53 Francella A, Dyan A, Bodian C, et al. The safety of 6-mercaptopurine for 21 Scotiniotis I, Rubesin SE, Ginsberg G. Imaging modalities in inflammatory child-bearing patients with inflammatory bowel disease: a retrospective bowel disease. Gastroenterol Clin N Am 1999;28:391–421.
cohort study. Gastroenterology 2003;124:9–17.
22 Sandborn WJ, Hanauer SB. Systematic review: the pharmacokinetic profiles 54 Connell WR, Kamm MA, Ritchie JK, et al. Bone marrow toxicity caused by of oral mesalazine formulations and mesalazine prodrugs used in the azathioprine in inflammatory bowel disease: 27 years of experience. Gut management of ulcerative colitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2003;17:29–42.
23 Sutherland LR, Roth D, Beck P, et al. Oral 5-aminosalicylic acid for 55 Lewis JD, Bilker WB, Brensinger C, et al. Inflammatory bowel disease is not maintaining remission in ulcerative colitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev associated with an increased risk of lymphoma. Gastroenterology 24 Eaden J, Abrams K, Ekbom A, et al. Colorectal cancer prevention in 56 Lewis JD, Schwartz JS, Lichtenstein GR. Azathioprine for maintenance of ulcerative colitis: a case-control study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther remission in Crohn’s disease: benefits outweigh the risk of lymphoma.
Gastroenterology 2000;118:1018–24.
Guidelines for the management of IBD in adults 57 Fraser AG. Methotrexate: first or second-line immunomodulator? 90 Nielsen OH, Vainer B, Rask-Madsen J. Review article: the treatment of Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2003;15:225–31.
inflammatory bowel disease with 6-mercaptopurine or azathioprine. Aliment 58 Alfadhli AA, McDonald JW, Feagan BG. Methotrexate for induction of remission in refractory Crohn’s disease (Cochrane Review). Cochrane 91 Caprilli R, Viscido A, Guagnozzi D. Review article: biological agents in the Database Syst Rev 2003;(1):CD003459.
treatment of Crohn’s disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2002;16:1579–90.
59 Feagan BG, Fedorak RN, Irvine EJ, et al. A comparison of methotrexate with 92 Sutherland LR, Singleton J, Sessions J, et al. Double-blind, placebo- placebo for the maintenance of remission in Crohn’s disease. North controlled trial of metronidazole in Crohn’s disease. Gut 1991;32:1071–5.
American Crohn’s Study Group Investigators. N Engl J Med 93 Ferguson A, Glen M, Ghosh S. Crohn’s disease: nutrition and nutritional therapy. Bailleres Clin Gastroenterol 1998;12:93–114.
60 Hamilton RA, Kremer JM. Why intramuscular dosing may be more 94 Messori A, Trallori G, D’Albaisio G, et al. Defined-formula diets versus efficacious than oral dosing in patients with rheumatoid arthritis.
steroids in the treatment of active Crohn’s disease: a meta-analysis.
Scand J Gastroenterol 1996;31:267–72.
61 Te HS, Schiano TD, Kuan SF, et al. Hepatic effects of long-term methotrexate 95 Sandborn WJ, Fazio VW, Feagan BG, Hanauer SB, American use in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. Am J Gastroenterol Gastroenterology Association Clinical practice Committee. AGA technical review on perianal Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterology 2003;125:1508–30.
62 Hawthorne AB. Ciclosporin and refractory colitis. Eur J Gastroenterol 96 Ostro MJ, Greenberg GR, Jeejeebhoy KN. Total parenteral nutrition and complete bowel rest in the management of Crohn’s disease. J Parenter 63 Lichtiger S, Present DH, Kornbluth A, et al. Cyclosporine in severe ulcerative colitis refractory to steroid therapy. N Engl J Med 1994;330:1841–5.
97 Witte AM, Veenendaal RA, Van Hogezand RA, et al. Crohn’s disease of the 64 D’Haens G, Lemmens L, Geboes K, et al. Intravenous cyclosporine versus upper gastrointestinal tract: the value of endoscopic examination.
intravenous corticosteroids as single therapy for severe attacks of ulcerative Scand J Gastroenterol Suppl 1998;225:100–5.
colitis. Gastroenterology 2001;120:1323–9.
98 Couckuyt H, Gevers AM, Coremans G, et al. Efficacy and safety of 65 Van Assche G, D’Haens G, Noman M, et al. Randomized, double-blind hydrostatic balloon dilatation of ileocolonic Crohn’s strictures: a prospective comparison of 4 mg/kg versus 2 mg/kg intravenous cyclosporine in severe long term analysis. Gut 1995;36:577–80.
ulcerative colitis. Gastroenterology 2003;125:1025–31.
99 Lavy A. Triamcinolone improves outcome in Crohn’s disease strictures. Dis 66 Actis GC, Aimo G, Priolo G, et al. Efficacy and efficiency of oral microemulsion ciclosporin versus intravenous and soft gelatin capsule 100 Cottone M, Rosselli M, Orlando A, et al. Smoking habits and recurrence in ciclosporin in the treatment of severe steroid-refractory ulcerative colitis: an Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterology 1994;109:643–8.
open-label retrospective trial. Inflamm Bowel Dis 1998;4:276–9.
101 Camma C, Ciunta M, Rosselli M, et al. Mesalamine in the maintenance 67 Actis GC, Bresso F, Astegiano M, et al. Safety and efficacy of azathioprine in treatment of Crohn’s disease: a meta-analysis adjusted for confounding the maintenance of ciclosporin-induced remission of ulcerative colitis.
variables. Gastroenterology 1997;113:1465–73.
Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2001;15:131–7.
102 Cottone M, Camma C. Mesalamine and relapse prevention in Crohn’s 68 Feagan BG. Cyclosporin has no proven role as a therapy for Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterology 2000;119:597.
disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 1995;1:335–9.
103 Travis SPL, ed. Recent advances in immunomodulation in the treatment of 69 Rutgeerts P, Van Assche G, Vermeire S. Optimising anti-TNF treatment in inflammatory bowel disease: review in depth. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 2004;126:1593–610.
70 Targan SR, Hanauer SB, van Deventer SJ, et al. A short-term study of 104 Shorthouse AJ. Abdominal surgery for Crohn’s disease. Coloproctology chimeric monoclonal antibody cA2 to tumor necrosis factor alpha for Crohn’s disease. Crohn’s Disease cA2 Study Group. N Engl J Med 105 Karch LA, Bauer JJ, Gorfine SR, et al. Subtotal colectomy with Hartmann’s pouch for inflammatory bowel disease. Dis Colon Rectum 1995;38:635–9.
71 Hanauer SB, Feagan BG, Lichtenstein GR, et al. Maintenance infliximab for 106 McKee RF, Keenan RA, Munro A. Colectomy for acute colitis: is it safe to Crohn’s disease: the ACCENT 1 randomised trial. Lancet 2002;359:1541–9.
close the rectal stump? Int J Colorect Dis 1995;10:222–4.
72 Present DH, Rutgeerts P, Targan S, et al. Infliximab for the treatment of 107 Ng RLH, Davies AH, Grace RH, et al. Subcutaneous rectal stump closure fistulas in patients with Crohn’s disease. N Engl J Med 1999;340:1398–405.
after emergency subtotal colectomy. Br J Surg 1992;79:701–3.
73 Sands BE, Anderson FH, Bernstein CN, et al. Infliximab maintenance therapy 108 Hallgren TA, Fasth SB, Oresland TO, et al. Ileal pouch anal function after for fistulizing Crohn’s disease. N Engl J Med 2004;350:876–85.
endoanal mucosectomy and handsewn ileoanal anastomosis compared with 74 Ljung T, Karlen P, Schmidt D, et al. Infliximab in inflammatory bowel disease: stapled anastomosis without mucosectomy. Eur J Surg 1995;161:915–21.
clinical outcome in a population based cohort from Stockholm County. Gut 109 Goodfellow PB, Wakefield SE, Anderson JA, et al. Predicting ileoanal pouch function. Coloproctology 2000;2:68–71.
75 Colombel JF, Loftus EV Jr, Tremaine WJ, et al. The safety profile of infliximab 110 Fazio VW, Ziv Y, Church JM, et al. Ileal pouch-anal anastomoses in patients with Crohn’s disease: the Mayo clinic experience in 500 patients.
complications and function in 1005 patients. Ann Surg 1995;222:120–7.
111 Reilly WT, Pemberton JH, Wolff BG, et al. Randomised prospective trial 76 Margolin ML, Krumholz MP, Fochios SE, et al. Clinical trials in ulcerative comparing ileal pouch-anal anastomosis performed by excising the anal colitis: II. Historical review. Am J Gastroenterol 1988;83:227–43.
mucosa to ileal pouch-anal anastomosis performed by preserving the anal 77 Cohen RD, Woseth DM, Thisted RA, et al. A meta-analysis and overview of the literature on treatment options for left-sided ulcerative colitis and 112 Leong AP, Londono-Schimmer EE, Phillips RK. Life-table analysis of stomal ulcerative proctitis. Am J Gastroenterol 2000;95:1263–76.
complications following ileostomy. Br J Surg 1994;81:727–9.
78 Marshal JK, Irvine EJ. Rectal corticosteroids versus alternative treatment in 113 Khubchandani IT, Kontostolis SB. Outcome of ileorectal anastomosis in an ulcerative colitis: a meta-analysis. Gut 1997;40:775–81.
inflammatory bowel disease surgery experience of three decades. Arch Surg 79 Safdi M, DeMicco M, Sninsky C, et al. A double-blind comparison of oral versus rectal mesalamine versus combination therapy in the treatment of 114 Lashner BA, Evans AA, Hanauer SB. Preoperative total parenteral nutrition ulcerative colitis. Am J Gastro 1997;92:1867–71.
for bowel resection in Crohn’s disease. Dig Dis Sci 1989;34:741–6.
80 Hanauer SB. Dose-ranging study of mesalamine (PENTASA) enemas in the 115 Andrews HA, Keighley MRB, Alexander-Williams J, et al. Strategy for treatment of acute ulcerative proctosigmoiditis: results of a multi-centred management of distal ileal Crohn’s disease. Br J Surg 1991;78:679–82.
placebo-controlled trial. The US PENTASA Enema study group. Inflamm 116 Edwards CM, George BD, Jewell DP, et al. Role of a defunctioning stoma in the management of large bowel Crohn’s disease. Br J Surg 81 Allison MC, Vallance R. Prevalence of proximal faecal stasis in active ulcerative colitis. Gut 1991;32:179–82.
117 Makowiec F, Jehle EC, Starlinger M. Clinical course of perianal fistulas in 82 Jarnerot G, Rolny P, Sandberg-Gertzen H. Intensive intravenous treatment of Crohn’s disease. Gut 1995;37:696–701.
ulcerative colitis. Gastroenterology 1985;89:1005–13.
118 Scott HJ, Northover JM. Evaluation of surgery for perianal Crohn’s fistulas.
83 Travis SPL, Farrant JM, Ricketts C, et al. Predicting outcome in severe ulcerative colitis. Gut 1996;38:905–10.
119 Yamamoto T, Bain IM, Connolly AB, et al. Gastroduodenal fistulas in 84 Hawthorne AB, Travis SPL, and the BSG IBD Clinical Trials Network.
Crohn’s disease: clinical features and management. Dis Colon Rectum Outcome of inpatient management of severe ulcerative colitis: a BSG IBD Clinical Trials Network Survey. Gut 2002;50:A16.
120 Fazio VW, Marchetti F, Church JM, et al. Effect of resection margins on the 85 Chapman RW, Selby WS, Jewell DP. Controlled trial of intravenous recurrence of Crohn’s disease in the small bowel. A randomised controlled metronidazole as an adjunct to corticosteroids in severe ulcerative colitis. Gut 121 Yamamoto T, Bain IM, Allan RM, et al. Stapled functional end-to-end 86 Daperno M, Sostegni R, Rocca R, et al. Review article: medical treatment of anastamosis vs sutured end-to-end anastomosis following ileocolonic severe ulcerative colitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2002;16:7–12.
resection in Crohn’s disease. Scand J Gastroenterol 1999;34:708–13.
87 Dissanayake AS, Truelove SC. A controlled therapeutic trial of long-term 122 Stebbing JF, Jewell DP, Kettlewell MGW, et al. Long term results of maintenance treatment of ulcerative colitis with sulphasalazine. Gut recurrence and reoperation after strictureplasty for obstructive Crohn’s disease. Br J Surg 1995;82:1471–4.
88 Marteau P, Crand J, Foucault M, et al. Use of mesalazine slow-release 123 Cristaldi M, Sampietro GM, Danelli PG, et al. Long-term results and suppositories 1 g three times per week to maintain remission of ulcerative multivariate analysis of prognostic factors in 138 consecutive patients proctitis: a randomised double-blind placebo-controlled multicentre study.
operated on for Crohn’s disease using ‘‘bowel sparing’’ techniques.
89 Ardizzone S, Molteni P, Bollani S, et al. Guidelines for the treatment of 124 Cameron JL, Hamilton SR, Coleman J, et al. Patterns of ileal recurrence in ulcerative colitis in remission. Eur J Gastroenterol & Hepatol Crohn’s disease. A prospective randomised study. Ann Surg 125 Travis SPL. Azathioprine for prevention of postoperative recurrence in 138 Katz JA, Pore G. Inflammatory bowel disease and pregnancy. Inflamm Crohn’s disease. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2001;13:1277–9.
126 Korelitz B, Hanauer S, Rutgeerts P, et al. Post-operative prophylaxis with 6- 139 Nørga¨rd B, Fonager K, Pedersen L, et al. Birth outcome in women exposed to MP, 5-ASA or placebo in Crohn’s disease: a 2 year multicenter trial.
5-aminosalicylic acid in pregnancy: a Danish cohort study. Gut 127 Rutgeerts P, Hiele M, Geboes K, et al. Controlled trial of metronidazole 140 Burke A, Lichtenstein GR, Rombeau JL. Nutrition and ulcerative colitis.
treatment for prevention of Crohn’s recurrence after ileal resection.
Baillieres Clin Gastroenterol 1997;11:153–74.
Gastroenterology 1995;108:1617–21.
141 Gassull MA, Cabre E. Nutrition in inflammatory bowel disease. Curr Opin 128 Sandborn W, McLeod R, Jewell DP. Pharmacotherapy for inducing and maintaining remission in pouchitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 142 Chintapatla S, Scott NA. Intestinal failure in complex gastrointestinal fistulae.
129 Shepherd NA, Jass JR, Duval I, et al. Restoration proctocolectomy with ileal 143 Zachos M, Tondeur M, Griffiths AM. Enteral nutritional therapy for inducing reservoir: a pathological histochemical study of mucosal biopsy specimens.
remission of Crohn’s disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 130 Mimura T, Rizzello F, Helwig U, et al. Four week open-label trial of 144 Fernadez-Benares F, Cabre E, Esteve-Comas M, et al. How effective is metronidazole and ciprofloxacin for the treatment of recurrent or refractory enteral nutrition in inducing remission in active Crohn’s disease? A meta- pouchitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2002;16:909–17.
analysis of the randomized cinical trials. J Parenter Enteral Nutr Shen B, Achkar JP, Lashner BA, et al. A randomized trial of ciprofloxacin and metronidazole to treat acute pouchitis. Inflamm Bowel Dis Graham TO, Kandil HM. Nutritional factors in inflammatory bowel disease.
Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2002;31:203–18.
146 Su CG, Judge TA, Lichtenstein GR. Extraintestinal manifestations of 132 Gionchetti P, Rizello F, Venturi A, et al. Oral bacteriotherapy as inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterol Clin North Am maintenance treatment in patients with chronic pouchitis: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Gastroenterology 2000;119:305–9.
147 Guidelines for osteoporosis in coeliac disease and inflammatory bowel 133 Eaden JA, Mayberry JF. Guidelines for screening and surveillance of disease. British Society of Gastroenterology. Gut 2000;46(Suppl 1):i1–8.
asymptomatic colorectal cancer in patients with inflammatory bowel disease.
148 Loftus EV, Crowson CS, Sandborn WJ, et al. Long term fracture risk in patients with Crohn’s disease: a population-based study in Olmsted County, 134 Ekbom A, Helmick C, Zack M, et al. Ulcerative colitis and colorectal cancer.
Minnesota. Gastroenterology 2002;123:468–75.
A population-based study. N Engl J Med 1990;323:1228–33.

Source: http://salofalk.cms.net.cn/SalofalkFile/20120730162847Guidelines%20for%20the%20management%20of%20IBD%20in%20adults2011.pdf